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PEACTICAL HINTS 



ON 



MILL BUILDING. 



B. JAMES ABERNATHEY. 






,x dohrj 



MOLINE, ILL.: 
R. JAMES ABERNATHEY. 

LONDON: 
WILLIAM DUNHAM, 26 MARK LANE 

1880. 



/ 






<^-^^4'i 



Eiiterod accordiug to Act of Cougress, iu tlie year 1880, by 

R. JAMES ABERNATHEY, 
iu the oUice of the Librarian of CoDsress, at Washiiistoii. 



R. H. Moore, Steam Printer, 

MOLINE, ILLINOIS. 



( 

i 
I 

} 



PREFACE. 



My primary object in preparing this book was to place be- 
fore the mining public a distinctively flour-milling and mill- 
building work. This, I have thought, was needed ; and in its 
preparation have constantly endeavored to make it plain, simple 
and entirely practical ; and if to any extent I have, in the esti- 
mation of the reader, failed in carrying out the design, I hope 
that such failure will be charged up to my good intentions only, 
allowing one to balance the other, leaving the book free to stand 
on its merits exclusively, giving it credit for whatever of value 
it does contain. 

The tables on gearing, belting and shafting I have carefully 
prepared for this work ; but much of the other general matter 
of a mechanical nature has been copied from good authorities, 
prominent among them being Chas. H. Haswell. I have pre- 
ferred to give, in the main, the productions entire of these 
authorities, with credit, to rewriting, recompiling and putting 
them in as original, as they could not have been very much im- 
proved, if at all, and could not have been considered original or 
any more valuable than in their present shape. 

R. James Abeenathey. 

MoLiNE, Illinois. 



CONTENTS. 



x^j^i^T :pii?.st, 



Article I. 
Something About How it Used to be Done. . - - i 

Article II. 
Primary Lessons for the Apprentice. . . . . 9 

Article III. 
Primary Lessons for the Apprentice ( continued ). - 17 

Article IV. 

Putting Gudgeons into Wooden Shafts — Making Con- 
veyors. 25 

Article Y. 

The Building of Husk Frames — Setting and Adjusting 

Bed-stone — Taking it out of Wind — Making Curbs. 32 

Article VI. 

Draft of Furrows — Dressing — Putting in the Irons — 

Balancing. 39 

Article VII. 

EiGiD OR Loose Drivers — Springs — Portable Mills — 

Speed of Burrs. ........ 43 

Article VIII. 
Cleaning Wheat — Machines and their Location. - - 53 

Article IX. 
Bolting — How to Clothe the Reels. .... 53 



VI CONTENi^g. 

Page. 

Article X, 

Specky Flouk — How Eemedied by Perfect Construction 

OF Keels and Bolting Chests. ----- C4 

Article XI. 

The Elevator — How it Discharges — Mode of Construc- 
tion — Spouts — Some Instructions for Putting them 
UP. ----------- 68 

Article XII. 
Shafting — How it should be Put up. - _ - - 78 

Article XIII. 
Filling Cog Wheels. - - . §4 

Article XIV. 
Water Wheels — Steam Engines. 93 

Article XV. 

Gearing — Tables for Determining the Eequired Pitch 
FOR Transmitting a given number of Horse Powers 
FOR Spur and Beveled Iron-teeth Wheels — Eules 
FOR THE Horse Power of Mortise, Spur and Bevel 
Wheels. - - - - - 102 

* Article XVI. 
Belting. 118 

Article XVII. 

Shafting — Some Tables for Determining the Horse 
Power that can be Transmitted by Shafting of 
Different Sizes and at Different Speeds. - 133 

Article XVIII. 

Some Useful Eules, and other Information of a Specific 

Character. 143 

Article XIX. 

Some Eules and other Useful Information of a Gen- 
eral Character, Picked up here and there. - 156 



* By an error, this, and the succeeding Articles of Part First, are rnTnTierefl wrong 
In the body of the work. The correct numbers are given here. 



CONTENTS. VU 

Page. 

Article I. 
New Process Milling. - - 173 

Article n. 

The Bueks— Furrow and Face — Balancing — High Grind- 
ing. 178 

Article III. 
The Purifier. 183 

Article TV. 

Arrangement of Purifiers. - - - - - - - 186 

Article Y. 
Bolting. ..--------. 192 

Article VI. 
Bolting ( continued ). ..----.. igg 

Article VII. 
A Brief Description of a New Process Mill. - - 199 

Article VIII. 
Improved Method of Gradual Eeduction. - - - 204 

Article IX. 
The Hungarian System of Milling with Eollers. - 223 

Article X. 
The Arrangement of Belts. ...... 241 

Article XL 

Mechanical Powers — Something about the Properties 
OF Water and Steam — Strength of Materials — 
Specific Gravities, - - ^ ^ ^ - - 251 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Article XII. 
The Steam Engine and Boiler Explosions. . - - - 283 

Article XIII. 
Retrospection — Some Parting Words. - - - - 290 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Frontispiece— J. T. No ye & Son. 

Munson's Mill. 43 

Eureka Flour Packer. - 64 

Victor Smutter. 80 

Leffel's Water Wheel. - - 96 

Barnard's Dustless Separator. 144^ 

Excelsior Purifier and Bran Duster. - - - 176-- 

Eureka Separator, Smutter, Brush Machine, etc. - 224 

Hafner's Pulley. - 240 



Peactical Hints on Mill Building. 



PART FIRST 



ARTICLE I. 



SOMETHING ABOUT HOW IT USED TO BE DONE. 

It is not, perhaps, necessary in a work intended to be 
strictly practical in character to say much about the origin 
and progress of flour making. It is more the province of 
the historian to enter into details of that kind ; and, yet, no 
work exclusively devoted to the art of mill building and 
milling can be considered complete without a brief mention 
of its progress during the present century at least, as in that 
time all, or nearly all, of the great improvements now visible 
have been made. It is unnecessary to say much about the 
condition of the art previous to the advent of the nineteenth 
century. For many generations it had apparently remained 
about the same, with little or no progress or improvement of 
any kind. Oliver Evans was probably the first man to 
awaken any great amount of interest in the matter. To him 
belongs all, or nearly all, the credit for arousing the slumber- 
ing energies that had lain dormant for so many centuries, 
and for quickening into life a progressive movement that has- 
continued in operation to the present time, with favorable in- 



11 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

dications tliat the end is not yet. It is true, the progress for 
many years was slow — almost a standstill in the condition 
left by Evans ; but improvement has been going on all the 
time, (slow it may have been, but very sure,) up to a period 
dating one decade back ; since which time progress has been 
very rapid. Although the principles upon which Evans' 
system was founded are still in vogue, and his plans, to some 
extent, carried out in detail, modified by the improvements 
in construction, still, a mill built after Evans' most approved 
plan and just as he would have built it in his time, would be 
considered very crude when compared with one of our more 
modern mills of to-day. Many of the improvements now 
used in milling were unknown to Evans ; but the difference 
would not be so apparent as to the number and difference of 
improvements, as it would in the manner of construction. 

The millwright, in those days, was supreme master of the 
situation. He did not depend much on mill furnishers and 
machinists ; he was his own furnisher, largely, and as for 
machinists, the nearest country blacksmith filled the bill ad- 
mirably. Almost everything was made of wood, and the mill- 
wright made it. Those were palmy days for millwrights ; 
they were just what their name implies : literally, mill-build- 
ers. If a shaft was needed it was not necessary to go to town to 
hunt up a machine shop and await the humor of the proprietor 
in getting one. If there were any saw-mills convenient, a 
shaft, would soon be forthcoming ; or, if there were no saw- 
mills convenient, an adjacent woods or piece of timber would 
answer the purpose just as well. The millwright of those 
days would swing his axe over his shoulder, strike for the 
timber, select his tree, fell it, cut it off* the length required, 
have it hauled to the mill, where he would proceed to form it 
into a shaft; after which he would go to his machinist (the 
blacksmith) and have his gudgeons made. Spike gudgeons 
for small shafts were mostly used in those days. These were 
driven into auger holes bored in the ends of the shaft and 
afterwards "trued" up and wedged fast. The shaft would 
not be round, but six, eight or twelve-square, just as we now 



HOW IT USED TO BE DONE. 6 

sometimes make reel and conveyor shafts. K it was neces- 
sary to put a pulley, or a wheel of any other kind on the 
shaft, it was procured in much the same way as the shaft ; at 
least they were made by the millwright. The pulley would 
be made solid of heavy plank, circled and dressed round with 
a chisel. Then a huge mortise, the shape of the shaft, would 
be cut through the center of it, and large enough to slip very 
loosely on and allow for " hanging," which meant to fix it on 
the shaft so that it would run true. This was done with a 
series of wooden keys, one or more for each square of the 
shaft, and driven from each side of the pulley alternately. 
By this means a wheel could or can be hung very exactly ; 
the plan being to first fix a rest or guide at the periphery, 
but independent of the wheel, so that the turning of the 
wheel w^ould not interfere with the fixed position of the rest. 
As the wheel would probably have to be made true both ways 
at the same operation, the rest would have to be fixed so as 
to guide both the face and the side of the wheel. It did not 
matter in this operation how many squares there might be to 
the shaft, or how many sets of keys; four sets only could be 
used to advantage in "hanging" awheel. The rest fixed, 
and the keys all out of the way but the four sets needed, the 
operator (milhvright) Avould give it a general "trueing" up 
all around, tighten up the keys a little, and then proceed to do 
it exactly. Every man who pretended to be a mechanic was 
not entrusted to hang a wheel: only the experts or best of the 
crew were given so important a task ; and they, no doubt, 
felt the importance of the position of trust just as men now 
do who are entrusted with important missions. It was not 
always an easy task for the most expert to hang a wheel ex- 
actly true; and, under the most favorable circumstances, it 
required time and patience, and no little care in loosening 
and tightening keys, to bring the point worked upon to the 
required place exactly. If on trial, after having nearly 
placed the wheel in its proper position, it is found to be 
right in three places and wrong or out only in one, then, of 
course, the wheel cannot be true itself, and it would be use- 



4 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

less to try further with the keys. If three points of the side 
of the wheel touched and ^A^ere right and the fourth off, it 
would indicate that the wheel had not been well made, or else 
it had twisted or warped ; but if the fiice of the wheel was- 
to show the same discrepancy, it would be evident that the 
wheel had not been made true, and nothing more could be 
done with it but recircle and redress, or turn it off on the 
shaft when it could be done. But this kind of trouble did 
not often occur. Millwrights, as a rule, were fairly good 
mechanics, better than now ; for the reason that they went at 
the trade Avhen young as apprentices, and remained at it ; 
now, anybody, if he ever swung a buck saw a few times^ 
makes a good fair millwright, or at least he not unfrequently 
passes for such to the great detriment and loss of his em- 
ployer, more especially the mill owner. But hanging a 
wheel is what we are talking about; and, as was just inti- 
mated, it was most generally found that at the first trial the 
keys, some of them, would have to be loosened to bring the 
wheel over at one point a little nearer the rest, or possibly a 
little further aAvay from it ; and, it may be that the same 
point on the face of the wheel might want to be moved a lit- 
tle in or out. If this was the case, a general backing and 
tightening of keys all around would be the order. If, how- 
ever, the wheel wanted moving sideways, it was only necessary 
to back the key on the side that had to be moved, in the direc- 
tion the wheel was to move, and tighten the key from or on 
the opposite side. This done, the wheel would have to be 
turned around again to observe the effect. It was, and isy 
among the possibilities, under similar circumstances, to get a 
wheel right after two or three operations. But, if the wheel 
was very large, it rarely ever occurred. It generally required 
repeated efforts, a long time and a great deal of caution and 
patience to bring about the desired result. 

The operation is quite different now. The millwright 
does not make his own shaft, he simply puts it up ; nor does 
he make his wheel ; all are furnished from the machine shop 
ready to go up. The millwright gets his bearings ready^ 



HOW IT USED TO BE DONE. 5 

slips tlie wlieels on the shaft, slips it into place, and the thing- 
is done. It does not follow that ever3i:hing is jnst right, 
though it not nnfreqnentlv happens that the machinist has 
done a poor j oh. The eye in the wheel is too small and has 
to be filed out before it can be got on the shaft ; or, it is too 
large and has to be bushed; or, it may not be bored true, 
and consequently ^^dll not hang true on the shaft. For all 
these drawbacks the millwright is irresponsible, but he knows 
who is ; and, while the machinist is rarely held accountable, 
he is many times anathamatized and brought to judgment 
before the righteous tribunal of the weary, patient, and of- 
tinies profane millwright. Bad fitting iron work is something 
that did not disturb the serenity of our forefather mill- 
wrights; but probabl}' other things did that were just as an- 
noying. Making the shafts and the pulleys was not all the 
millwrights had to do in those days ; they had to make the 
cog wheels, little and big, and make the cogs to fill them 
with ; no sending oif to a manufacturing establishment to buy 
them already made. The wheels had to be made in much 
the same way as the pulleys, and mortised for the cogs, and 
then hung on the shaft in a similar manner as described. 
The cogs driyen, laid out and dressed much the same as now, 
only we use iron wheels instead of wooden. The wheels and 
€0gs are furnished by the mill-farnisher, and all the mill- 
wright has to do is to fit, driye and dress them. All of the 
styles of wheels were, of course, quite difterent from what they 
now are ; but one style in particular would be considered 
quite odd now to those who had neyer seen them. The body 
of these wheels was made like a solid wooden pulley, and 
banded with iron ; a pitch line would be struck on the side 
near the periphery, which would be spaced off' the same as 
any other Ayheel, according to the number of cogs and pitch, 
and then auger holes bored through to receiye the cogs, 
which were merely round pins turned true, with a round- 
turned shank just the size to suit the auger hole. These 
were the beyel wheels of those days and used to connect 
shafts runnino- at rio-ht anoies with each other, the same as 



6 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

our bevel wheels do now. When this kind of wheel was in- 
tended to do a great deal of work, as for instance, connecting' 
the main upright shaft with the main gearing in the pit; or, 
in connecting the spindle with the driving power, it was 
made with a double head, with the round pins or cogs run- 
ning through both heads, while the cogs of the master or 
counter wheel gearing into it would come between the two 
heads. This double trussed head prevented the round cogs 
from springing as they probably otherwise Avould have done. 
All of the wheels intended to take the place, or rather that 
answered the purpose at that da}- of the bevel wheels of to- 
day, were not made in that way exactly. Large wheels for 
heavy work were framed together with ^ heavy rim, which 
was mortised through on the side instead of being simply 
bored. Into these mortises cogs were fitted very much the 
same as we now fit them in an iron bevel wheel. 

It was then, as we have seen, more in the mode of con- 
struction than in general principles, that a mill of those times 
differed from a mill of the present time. 

Everything that could be made of wood was made by the 
millw^right at the mill ; he built the water-wheel ( iron tur- 
bines were unknown then); made his own penstock; made 
his pulleys, wheels and shafts. The main upright shaft was 
made of wood, ponderous in size ; all of the other uprights 
and all the laying shafts were the same, and greater or less, 
in size, according to the amount of work they had to do. 
ISTot only, as has been noted, were the shafts made of wood 
but almost everything else. But little iron was used, none for 
any purpose where wood could be used as we^l. Belts were a 
rare luxury, very few being used for any purpose. 

The following extracts from Oliver Evans' Millwrights'' 
Guide will better illustrate the methods of his time : 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING WALLOWBRS AND TRUNDLES. 

By example 43, in the table, the wallower is to have 26 rounds. 
4i pitch : the diameter of its pitch circle is 3 feet \l inch, and 3 
feet 4i inches from outside. Its head should be 3^ inches thick. 



HOW IT USED TO BE DONE. 7 

doweled truly together, or made with double plank, crossing each 
other. Make the bands 3 inches wide, ^ of an inch thick, evenly 
drawn; the heads must be made to suit the bands, by setting 
the compasses so that they will step round the inside of the band 
in 6 steps ; with this distance sweep the head, allowing about i 
of' an inch outside, in dressing, to make such a large band tight. 
Make them hot alike all around with a chip fire, which swells the 
iron ; put them on the head while hot, and cool them with water, 
to keep them from burning the wood too much, but not too fast, 
lest they snap ; the same mode serves for hooping all kinds of 
heads. 

Dress the head fair after banding, and strike the pitch circle 
and divide it by the same pitch with the cogs ; bore the holes for 
the rounds with an auger of at least 1* inch ; make the rounds 
of the best wood, 2f inches diameter, and 11 inches between the 
shoulders, the tenons 4 inches, to fit the holes loosely, until with- 
in one-inch of the shoulder, then drive it tight. Make the mor- 
tises for the shaft in the heads, with notches, for the keys to hang 
it by. When the rounds are all driven into the shoulders, observe 
whether they stand straight; if not, they may be set fair by put- 
ting the wedges nearest to one side of the tenon, so that the 
strongest part may incline to draw them straight : this should be 
done with both heads. 



OF MAKING BOLTING WHEELS. 

Make the spur-wheel for the first upright, with a 4i inch 
plank; the pitch of the cogs, the same as the cog-wheel, into 
which it is to work ; put two bands f of an inch wide, one on each 
side of the cogs, and a rivet between each cog, to keep the wheel 
from splitting. 

To proportion the cogs in the wheels, to give the bolts the 
right motion, the common way is — 

Hang the spur-wheel, and set the stones to grind with a pro- 
per motion, and count the revolutions of the upright shaft in a 
minute ; compare its revolutions with the revolutions that a bolt 
should have, which is about 36 revolutions in a minute. If the 
upright go ^ more, put J less in the first driving wheel than 
in the leader, suppose 15 in the driver, then 18 in the leader : 
but if their difference be more, (say one-half,) there must be a 
difference in the next two wheels ; observing that if the motion 
of the upright shaft be greater than that of the bolt should be, 
the driving wheel must be proportionately less than the leader; 
but if it be slower, then the driver must be greater in proportion. 
The common size of bolting wheels is from 14 to 20 cogs ; if less 
than 14, the head - blocks will be too near the shafts. 

Common bolting wheels should be made of plank, at least 3 



« . PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

Inches thick, well seasoned ; and they are best when as wide as 
the diameter of the wheel, and banded with bands nearly as wide 
as the thickness of the wheel, the bands may be made of rolled 
iron, about i of an inch thick. Some make the wheels of 2 inch 
plank, crossed, and no bands; but this proves no saving, as they 
are apt to go to pieces in a few years. The wheels, if banded, 
are generally 2 inches more in diameter than the pitch circle ; but 
if not, they should be larger. The pitch or distances of the cogs 
are different; if to turn 1 or 2 bolts, 24 inches; but, if more, 2f ; 
if they are to do much heavy work, they should not be less than 
3 inches. Their cogs, in thickness, are half the pitch ; the shank 
must drive tightly in an inch auger hole. 

When the mortises are made for the shafts in the head, and 
notches for the keys to hang them, drive the cogs in and pin 
their shank at the back side, and cut them off half an inch from 
the wheel. 

Hang the wheels on the shafts so that they will gear a proper 
depth, about | the thickness of the cogs; dress all the cogs to 
equal distances by a gauge ; then put the shafts in their places, 
the wheels gearing properly, and the head blocks all secure ; set 
them in motion by water. Bolting reels should turn so as to 
drop the meal on the back side of the chest, as it will then hold 
more, and will not cast out the meal when the door is opened. 



ARTICLE II. 

PRIMARY LESSONS FOR THE APPRENTICE. 

In making this work tliorouglily practical, as it is in- 
tended to be, it is or at least it seems necessary to begin at 
the bottom : begin with the apprentice in his iirst effort to 
make a square cut with the saw, or dress a piece of timber 
square with the plane. These are trifling matters with the 
advanced mechanic or even with the senior apprentice ; but, 
with the junior, the lad who has just taken hold for the first 
time to become acquainted with the arts and mysteries of 
the mill-building trade, it is a somewhat different matter. 
His saw seems always determined to run either on one side 
or the other of the line, all of his efforts to the contrary 
notwithstanding ; and, while, of course, he does not then 
know it, his efforts to prevent it are oftentimes the cause of 
his discomfiture. If a saw is sharp, true and evenly 
dressed, as it always should be when placed in the hands of 
a learner, for the purpose of making good cuts and true, it 
is best for the boy to give it a fair start, keep it moving and 
let it take care of itself. It is far more liable to run true 
than if a constant effort is made to force it a little first to one 
and then to the other side of the line, A good eye, a stead}' 
hand and plenty of nerve, is all that is needed to make a 
success in squaring off the ends of timbers with the saw. It 
is true, if a saw is in bad condition, with more set on one side 
than the other, or with one side of the teeth longer than the 
other, then it is simply impossible for a bo}' or even the 
most skillful workman to make a square cut. Such a saw 
should never be furnished an apprentice. Masters and others 
do not like to furnish their best saws to new apprentices for 



10 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

fear of getting them bent or buckled, and it is not necessaiy 
that they should do so ; but it is necessary that they should 
put their old saws in the best shape by making them sharp^ 
even and true ; with such a saw the apprentice with care will 
soon learn to make a very creditable cut. One thing he 
must remember from the start and that is the line must be 
left on the body of the stick, or the part that is intended for 
use. The saw should never be started right on the line nor 
on the inside of it, but always on the outside, and as close 
to it as can be without cutting on it. By being thus careful^ 
if the cut is not true it can be made so with a plane, having 
the lines to go by. The same thing could be done with the 
aid of a square, provided the stick was straight and square ; 
but the proper way is to have the lines left on as a guide not 
only for trueing-up by, but to make certain the stick is the 
full length designed. It is not always necessary that the end 
of a stick should be sawed off exactly true and sc|uare, but 
the learner should cut off all with equal care. A careful 
habit in handling the saw ought to be formed. Even if it is 
not necessary to have a nice, square cut, it can do no harm 
if such a cut is made, but on the contrary,, will do much good 
in forming a careful hahit. This is not only true in hand- 
ling the saw, but is equally true with regard to the use of 
other tools and in doing other kinds of work. 

An apprentice ought to learn as soon as possible how tO' 
dress his own saw; ought to know when it is out of order 
and just how to put it in proper order; besides making him 
skillful it also makes him self-reliant. Right along with the 
use of the hand-saw, among the first lessons to be learned by 
the apprentice is how to dress-up stuff". Dressing up stuff 
sometimes means very plain, unskillful and verj^hard work; 
this is more particularly so in surface-planing rough boards. 
This, however, is not so much done as formerly, as there are 
now but few localities Avhere dressed lumber cannot be 
readily obtained. The use of machinery-dressed lumber has 
taken oft* a great deal of the hardest kind of work in mill- 
buildiuff, a ffood share of which used to fall on the unfortu- 



PRIMARY LESSONS FOR THE APPRENTICE, 11 

nate apprentice. Dressing rough lumber was and is a job 
tbat adapts itself to the capacity of the ordinary apprentice,, 
as he can work at that day after day without requiring much 
watching or many instructions. But when it is necessary to 
dress timber for any purpose, straight, out of wind, and 
square all around, it requires a little more skill. When in- 
structed to dress up a piece or any number of pieces in this 
way, the learner must first determine which he will use for 
the face, side and edge, or two face sides. The best looking 
sides of the piece must be selected for the faces. By glancing 
along it with the eye it can be determined whether it be 
much in wind, or warped, or not; if not much it can be 
planed in shape by the use of the eye as a guide ; but if very 
much in wind, then it will be necessary to plane a straight 
or level spot crosswise on one end of the stick. On this spot 
and across the stick must be laid a parallel strip, that is, a 
strip of pine board say two or two and one-half feet long and 
from two to three inches wide, dressed of an exact equal 
-width from end to end ; or, in the absence of such a strip, or 
two of them, as there must always be two jvist alike, the 
iron square can be used instead. The strip or square being- 
placed at the end as directed, the same operation must be 
performed at the other end ; the plane must be used on the 
stick crosswise as before, and the other strip or another 
square laid across it; by sighting across these two strips or 
squares it can be determined whether or not the two planed 
spots are out of wind with each other. If the strips show 
no wind, if they cover each other exactly every way, then 
the spots may be considered right; but if they do not, the 
planing must be resumed and continued until it is right,, 
using the strips at each time of trial as proof. After the 
spots have been made correct, the stick must be turned over 
first on one side and then on the other, and a chalk line or a- 
straight-edge, and pencil or scribe-awl, as the case may be,. 
muTst be used to get a line from end to end of stick. To do 
this right the line or straight-edge must be placed just even 
with the planed spots on the ends of the .stick. If there 



12 . PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

sliould happen to be a piece split off tlie corner, or it sliould 
be an imperfect corner for any other reason, so that it coukl 
not be tokl by the eye when the straight-edge was in just 
the right place, one of the wind strips or a scj[uare should be 
hekl against the planed spots, and the line or straight-edge 
set to that. In work of this kind a good straight-edge is 
preferable to a line when it can be made available, because 
.a much liner line can be made with a pencil or scribe-awl 
than can be Math a chalk line; and when the job is very par- 
ticular the scribe-awl should be used in preference to every- 
thing else, as the line will be not only fine, but cannot be 
Tubbed out as might be the case mth either chalk or a lead- 
pencil. After tlie lines have been made the stick is ready 
for plane, axe or adze, as the party doing the work niay 
think best. If the stick is crooked and badly warped, it is 
best to hew it down with either an axe or an adze, as it can 
be done cpiicker and much easier in that way. After the 
hewing has been done the plane must be used for smoothing 
^ncl straightening up. The face side of a bad stick once 
dressed up nicely the greatest difficulty is over. It is most 
likely the other sides of the stick will have to be spotted at 
the ends in the same manner as the first, but the wind strips 
will be no longer needed, as the square can be used from the 
face side already dressed, for that purpose. After the 
spots have been made, lines the entire length of the stick 
will also have to be made in the same manner as on the 
face in the first place, and the same mode of dressing will 
^jrobably have to be adopted; although it may not, as it will 
•depend on the c|uantity that has to be dressed off; if not 
very much the plane will answer without other aids. The 
two face sides being dressed square, the other two will liave 
to be dressed and squared from them in the same manner as 
the second face side was squared from the first. If a frame 
of any kind is to be made of lumber dressed square on all 
sides, there is but little difficulty in laying it off or marking 
out the mortises and tenons; but it is not so easy when tim-. 
ber has to be framed in the same shape that it comes from 



PRIMARY LESSONS FOR THE APPRENTICE. 13 

the saw-mills. It must be remarked that the apprentice 
is not, as a rule, troubled much with the laying out of 
frame work ; but it is his business, if he expects to become 
master of his calling, to watch closely to see how it is done, 
in order that when the time does come, as it is sure to, if he 
is studious and industrious, he will be fully prepared to do 
it and do it well. Hence the reason for being so particular 
in this work in calling attention to the minutest details of 
the first part of an apprentice's work. It is necessary that 
he should know something about the principles controlling 
everything he undertakes, and he must understand that a 
frame made of rough-sawed timber badly twisted and warped, 
would also be badly twisted and in wind if it were framed 
in that condition. A great deal of outside heavy framing, in 
water mills especially, has to be done with the stuiF in its. 
rough state, as it does not pay for that purpose to dress it all 
over by hand or by mill either, unless everything for the 
purpose is very convenient, which is not often the case 
where this kind of framing is to be done. The timber that 
is to be framed in the rough must be taken out of wind by 
spotting the ends in the same manner as before described on 
the first face side, and corresponding spots on the other side 
made in the same way and square with the first; this done,, 
the iron square on which are marked the inches, must be 
laid across the planed spots just as though it was the inten- 
tion to see whether it was square or not, and then with a 
scribe-awl mark the stick on both sides and at both ends,, 
just two inches from the corner; then the square must be 
moved over and the other two sides marked in the same 
way. These marks are the guides for striking chalk lines; 
one line on each side of the stick. Of course any other- 
number of inches would answer the purpose. It is not neces- 
sary < to be confined to just two inches from the edge for 
striking the chalk line; but that sized space is generally the 
handiest, for the reason that for timber Q:s^Q in size, a great 
deal of which is used, there is always allowed two-inch face 
and two-inch mortise and tenon. By having a 6x6 stick 



14 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

lined off in this way, the two-inch blade of the iron square 
can be laid along the line right over where the mortise or 
tenon is to be, and the same marked off on both sides with- 
'out moving the square. Where the timber is larger or 
smaller than 6x6, this mode is not so likely to work, as the 
mortises and tenons are liable to be larger or smaller also, 
as the case may be. It may be understood that for all pur- 
poses the square will have to be applied along the lines in- 
stead of along the edges of the piece, as would be the 
case were it dressed true all around. In laying out 
tenons the square must be kept to the lines in scribing 
around for the shoulder, otherwise the cross lines will not 
meet; this rule must be observed if the ends have to be cut 
oiF square. After the mortises and tenons are made, it will 
be found that the frame will not be liable to come together 
well without some additional work. It will be found on ex- 
amination that the chalk lines that have been laid on the 
stick, while just two inches from the corner or edge at the 
spot where it has been planed, on the other side of that 
spot it is probably more. To overcome that difficulty the 
two-inch blade of the iron square will have to be laid along 
on the outside of the chalk line, but touching it as in laying 
out the mortise ; and along the outer edge of the square a 
heavy scribe line must be made; the opposite side of the 
stick must be treated in the same way. After this is done 
the stick must be sawed across the face even with the heads 
of the mortises, and down to the lines just made, after which 
that portion of the stick must be cut out down to the line on 
both sides and dressed evenly across. This operation must 
be performed with every mortise in the stick. It will then 
be found that the faces of all the mortises are parallel to 
each other and they are also ready to bore for the pins. 
Tor two inch mortises an inch and a half is generally al- 
lowed from the edge of the face of mortise to center of hole, 
and one-inch holes are the common size. With larger and 
smaller mortises greater or less space is allowed, also larger 
or smaller pin holes, and more of them if the frame is heavy. 



PRIMARY LESSONS FOR THE APPRENTICE. 15 

It will probably be found after the mortises are all ready 
that the tenons cannot be got in and to their place, on ac- 
count of the body of the post being too large to go down in 
the boxes made over the mortises ; the remedy for that will 
suggest itself when the difficulty is discovered, but it is not 
proper to await a trial before getting the tenon ready. The 
post must be treated in the same manner as cap and sill or 
mortised piece ; the square must be laid along the line in the 
same way, and the outer edge marked with a scribe-awl to 
which the operator is to work in dressing oif the surplus 
wood. This can be done to any distance from the shoulder 
to assure its not striking on the sill or cap, as it may do in 
g;etting the frame together. If such a frame is to be 
planked up on the inside as a forebay or penstock, the cut- 
ting on the post must be done on the outside, but if the re- 
verse is true ; if the planking goes on the outside, then the 
cutting away of parts to meet the boxing on the mortise 
must be done on the inside. After the tenons have been 
made ready in every other way, the pin-holes or " draw- 
bores " must be made. It must be remembered in boring 
pin-holes in tenon that the center of the hole must come 
nearer the shoulder than did the center of the hole to the 
edge of mortise face ; the reason is obvious, as by that means 
the driving in of the pin draws the shoulder of tenon and 
face of mortise close together. The difference should be 
about an eighth of an inch in hard wood frames ; if the dis- 
tance from face of mortise to center of pin-hole be one and 
a half inches, then the distance from tenon shoulder to center 
of hole should be about one and three-eighths of an inch. 
There are no special instructions to give for making mor- 
tises and tenons, except that for all millwright work great 
care should be exercised to have them fit snug. "When an 
apprentice has got far enough along to make a neat and true 
mortise he is almost ready to receive journeymen's wages; 
and if there is any one thing more than another, that an ap- 
prentice should take pride in, it is in making a good mor- 
tise. There is but one or two things to observe to succeed : 



16 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



bore carefully and not bore nnder the line ; tlien block out 
just as carefully, after which use a paring chisel with the 
same care, and there need be no failure in making a good 
mortise. 




ARTICLE III. 

PRIMARY LESSONS FOR THE APPRENTICE, CONTINUED. 

There is another kind of lumber dressing that was at 
one time a very common pastime for the learning mechanic, 
and that was the dressing up of staves for circular vats or 
tubs. This has never been so common in flour mill work 
as in some other kinds : paper mills notably. Still there is 
more or less of it to do in all ])ranches of the trade yet. 
Wooden lagging for pulleys is got out in the same way, 
though in a general way but little attention is paid to any 
specific rule or mode of getting out stuff for lagging pulleys, 
unless they be large and wide on the face, then it is import- 
ant to get it out with care ; the inside must l^e nicely hol- 
lowed out to suit the circle of pulley and the edges properly 
beveled. It is a common practice when the pieces are irreg- 
ular in width to bevel them first, using the pattern from the 
back or outside of the stave or lag. It must be remembered 
that the bevel is not the same on every piece ; if the pieces 
vary any in width, there is a constant variation of bevel with 
every variation in mdth. In order then to get the bevel on 
each piece right, it is necessary to make a bevel pattern. 
This is done by taking, say, a half-inch board and striking a 
circle arc on it corresponding with the outside circle of pul- 
ley drum or tub; then mark a line running directly from the 
center to the circumference of circle. The sweep by which 
the arc is struck answers for this purpose, provided it is 
dressed at the outer end part way, so that one edge runs to 
the center. Along this edge of the sweep after the arc of 
circle has been struck, a line must be drawn for the bevels ; 
the piece must then be cut out carefully to the lines that 



18 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

have been made. This j^attern should be made about six- 
teen inches long and sufficiently wide to be convenient, with 
the beveled shoulder long or deep enough to suit the thick- 
ness of stuff to be dressed. By the use of this little device 
the proper bevel to any width piece can be obtained. As 
already said it must be worked from the back ; and after the 
edges have been jointed and beveled, the back can be 
rounded off to suit the circle of pattern. 

For ordinary lagging, however, the back does not 
need to be rounded off, as the whole will be turned off after 
pulley is completed ; but for vat or tub work of any kind, 
and sometimes for the soling of M^ater wheels it is nec- 
essary to round off the back neatly. After this is all done 
the inside must be dressed or hollowed out. The same pat- 
tern will answer for this also, by striking an arc on the out- 
side corresponding with the inside circle of cylinder. In 
cases where the pieces to be so dressed are to be of a uni- 
form width, the common bevel can be used if it suits best, 
as the bevel is the same on all ; but a pattern for rounding 
and hollowing must be used the same as in the first case. It 
must not be forgotten that whether the pieces be of uniform 
width or not, each piece must be parallel, otherwise there 
will be a varying bevel on the edges : the wide end of a 
piece will have more of a bevel than the narrow end. This 
is particularly so when the pattern is used for beveling; if 
the pieces are of a uniform width and a fixed bevel used, 
then there will be no difference in the bevel on the piece, 
whether it be of equal width from end to end or not ; but if 
a set of staves for instance were taken to set up a tub of any 
kind, which were not parallel, it would be found impossible 
to get them in position in a circular or any other regular 
form. As a matter of course, tapering tubs or vats must 
have the staves wider at one end than the other, but the dif- 
ference must be provided for and made uniform throughout, 
otherwise a failure in setting up would be the result. All 
staves of this kind ought to be of a uniform thickness, 
gauged to that; and to get at that properly, the edges 



DRESSING SHAFTS, 19 

should be first beveled, then hollowed out on the inside, 
after which a gauge set to the required thickness should be 
run along the edges from the inside, allowing the surplus, if 
any, to be dressed off the back, as it is much easier to do. A 
stave dressed in this way is presumed to be out of wind, and 
certainly is, if there be no twist or warp of any kind in the 
stuff before dressing. 

Dressing up a piece having more than four sides, as a 
conveyor, reel or other shaft, requires a little more practice 
and skill than au}^ of the foregoing, but frequently falls to 
the lot of the beginner quite early. If a piece of timber 
already planed and squared is to be dressed with eight 
squares as a conveyor shaft, it is quite an easy task both to 
lay out and dress. With such a piece not exceeding two 
feet square, all that is necessary is to take the two feet blade 
of the common iron square and lay it across the face of the 
stick; if the stick be just two feet square, then the iron 
square (or two-foot rule either will do) will have to lay square 
across the stick ; but if the stick be less than two feet square 
the rule will lay at an angle across it. When lying at an 
angle it will be important to see that the corners of the rule 
— two of them on the side used, or in the case of the iron 
square the two outer corners, must be placed even or flush 
with the two sides or corners of the stick ; then with the 
scribe-awl a point must be made either at figure 7 or 17, or 
both if desired; one only is necessary; after which a gauge 
must be set to meet the points made ; with this gauge the 
stick must be lined on each square or side, two lines for 
each ; the corners of the stick must be dressed down to these 
lines, when a very perfect eight-square stick or shaft will be 
obtained. This mode of making a conveyor-shaft requires 
as a rule too much time, and should not be adopted unless 
the piece of timber is already very straight and square, more 
especially if the planing has to be done by hand, as is the 
case with most mill jobs away from the large towns. The 
ordinary and less troublesome way of making a conveyor or 
other shafts of this kind is to first cut off the ends square, 



20 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

leaving the stick about tlie length required or a little longer^ 
so that the ends can be iinally squared and finished, after 
which the shape of shaft must be laid off on the ends in this 
way: first ascertain the center; this must be determined 
somewhat by the shape of the stick ; if it be fairly straight 
the center of the stick in the rough will answer for the cen- 
ter of shaft when dressed ; in fact, it must, for unless the 
stick is much larger than needed, an indicated center very 
far from the real center would be likely to leave the shaft 
deficient on one side. But if, on the contrary, it be sprung 
and crooked, the indicated center must tend to the full side 
of the stick, otherwise a deficiency would occur on one 
side of the shaft when finished. When the center has been 
fixed to suit the stick, a circle may be struck on each end 
the size necessary to lay off the eight squares required. To 
do this we will sa}^, for instance, the shaft requires to be six 
inches diameter across the squares; to ascertain the diameter 
of circle necessary we multiply the six by thirteen, and di- 
vide by twelve, the product will be the diameter required 
or a circle in this case of exactly six and one-half inches in 
diameter. It is important to be quite accurate in setting 
dividers so as to have the circle exact. After the ends have 
been circled to suit the shape of the stick, a starting point 
or line must be drawn across each end exactly parallel with 
each other. To do this either of two modes can be adopted. 
It must be understood that these lines, as well as other lines 
afterward to be made, indicate the position of the squares ; 
each line runs from corner to corner opposite each other 
across the end of the stick. To determine the position of 
the first line it will be best to draw a light temporary line 
with a lead-pencil across the end from two opposite corners. 
This line would be supposed to be the center of two opposite 
squares. At one end of this line and on the circle must be 
measured a distance equal to one-half the width the square 
is intended to be; the judgment may be depended on for that, 
if not, a little further on will be found a rule for ascertaining 
the width of the square in advance. From the point thus as- 



DRESSING SHAFTS. 21 

certained a line must be drawn across the end exactly 
through the center of the circle. This establishes the tirst 
line. In order to get a corresponding parallel line on the 
opposite end, the piece may be so adjusted as to luring the 
line exactly level b}' a true spirit-leyel ; the level can then be 
taken to the other end, held to the center and adjusted until 
just right, then draw a line under it ; or, a strip can be fas- 
tened on the lined end, nicely adjusted to the line and a 
similar strip used at the opposite end in much the same 
manner as the level, except that it must be adjusted with the 
eye until parallel with the other. A mechanic with a good, 
reliable eye, can make it very accurate in this way. These 
strips should be about two feet long, or long enough to pro- 
ject a reasonable distance from the piece. These lines fixed, 
the squares must be laid off. To do this, the size or width of 
squares -must be first ascertained; this may be done by 
multiplying the diameter the shaft is intended to be 
across the square l^y five and cli^dding by six. Thus a shaft 
intended to be six inches across the squares would have a net 
width of square of two and one-half inches; the width of 
square determined, the dividers must be brought into re- 
quisition; and in setting them it is necessary to have them 
space exactly 2^ inches, otherwise in running around the 
circle they will either run behind or run beyond the 
starting point ; in either case a new adjustment would be 
necessary. After the dividers have been set correctly, begin 
at the point Avhere the line already made crosses the circle, 
(either end of the line), and step around the circle carefully. 
If the dividers are right, they will be found to come out 
even, the last step of the dividers will land where the first 
started. Lines can then be drawn from point to point 
through the center in the same manner as the first line was 
drawn, thus dividing the ends into eight equal parts corres- 
ponding with the eight squares which the shaft is to have. 

The face lines of the squares are then made in this way: 
A small straight-edge or strip of any kind, a square, or any- 
thing available and suitable, is laid on the end of the piece 



22 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

in sucli a manner as to take in any two points intended to 
form one of tlie squares; a line must then be drawn with 
a knife or scribe-awl, along tlie edge of the strip and through 
the center of each point to the outside of the piece. The 
strip must then be moved around one point only, and a simi- 
lar line drawn. This must be repeated until all the squares 
at both ends have been marked, then the piece must be lined 
from end to end to dress by. To do this, the piece, if not 
straight, should be supported on the corner in such a man- 
ner as to bring the face line of square about perpendicular. 
A chalk line can then be stretched along the piece, using the 
terminals of the face lines as points to work from. After the 
line is stretched, it must be raised as nearly perpendicular as 
possible for striking ; because, if allowed to vary a great 
deal from a perpendicular direction, it would be liable to 
make a curved line on the piece, Avliich would prevent the 
face of the square from being straight when dressed. After 
all the squares have been lined in this way, the four corners 
of the piece can be dressed off first with an axe or adze, then 
planed nicely to the lines. This will form four of the eight 
sides or square; for the other four the same mode of lining 
will have to be adopted, although ynth. less trouble, as the 
half-finished shaft can rest solidly on one of the newly- 
dressed sides, while the lines are being struck on the oppo- 
site onQ for the other four. It is not necessary to use a chalk 
line in this case if a long straight-edge is available, as it can 
be laid to the place and a fine pencil or awl line can be made 
along it, either of which is better than a chalk line. The 
reason this mode of lining would not answer in the first 
place is, because omng to the crooked and rough condition 
of the stick, a good and true line could not be made. These 
last lines made, and the other four squares dressed, a com- 
plete eight-square shaft is the result. 

In getting out a six-square shaft much the same method 
is adopted as in the eight-square just described. Some mill- 
wrights use six-square shafts for reels, but they make a very 
awkward shaft. A twelve-square shaft is much the best for 



DKESSING SHAFTS. 23 

reels. Twelve-square shafts are to be dressed in much the 
same manner as the others. The rule for obtaining the 
width of squares on an eight-square shaft will not hold good 
for determining width of squares on a twelve-square shaft. 
In making what would be called a seven-inch reel shaft, it is 
best to strike a seven-inch circle and divide it into twelve 
equal parts, and allow it to be whatever it will make across 
the squares when dressed. 

Water-wheel (wooden) shafts are usually dressed with 
sixteen sides or squares ; and while there are not so many 
shafts of this kind used now, it is probably well enough to 
give the operation of getting out a water-wheel shaft a pass- 
ing notice. The stick for the purpose is best selected stand- 
ing, and in felling great care must be taken not to split or 
otherwise damage it. After the tree from which the shaft 
is to be taken is cut down, the shaft piece is cut out of the 
butt end, or near to it, with the ends cut off about square, 
and a circle of the size required struck on them. The first 
lines are then drawn across the ends in the same manner as 
on the conveyor shaft, and the circle divided into sixteen 
equal parts to correspond with the sixteen sides. The faces 
of the squares are marked off in the same way, and a chalk 
line is struck, one at a time only. The stick is adjusted so 
that the face line on the end of the stick will stand exactly 
plumb with the chalk line on upper side. The workmen 
then get up on top of the log with heavy chopping axes to 
do the " scoring." They chip in and split off nearly to the 
line. This operation is followed by a heavy broad-axe in 
the hands of a skillful workman. The work is tested every 
few moments with a plumb line to see that it is right. 
When the first side is finished in this way, the log is turned 
so as to bring the next square in position, and which is 
dressed in the same manner as the first; then comes the 
next, and so on, until the stick has been dressed all around. 
This operation does not finish the shaft. As must be re- 
membered it has been roughly dressed; larger than intended 
to be when finished. There should be at least one-half inch 



24 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



left all around to finish to the proper size. Before it is 
counter-hewed it is customary to haul it to the place where 
it is to be used, there to be finished. 

It of course does not follow necessarily that the mill- 
wright should always go to the forest or ^sa' oods to cut down 
and dress the shaft. It may not always be convenient to do 
so. It may be more convenient to bring it to the mill 
rough; but in either case the mode of dressing would be 
the same. 




ARTICLE IV. 



PUTTING GUDGEONS INTO WOODEN SHAFT. MAKING 
CONVEYORS. 

Wooden shafts, either for conveyor or reel, or for any 
other purpose, should be dressed as straight as possible, not 
only because it is necessary to make them run easy and true, 
but it also greatly lessens the diihculty of putting in the gud- 
geon. It is next to impossible to put a gudgeon straight in 
a crooked shaft, more especially wing gudgeons, which have 
been mostly used in the past. It is sometimes a trouble- 
some iob to o'et a wino-ecl o'udo-eon in true when the shaft is 

«/ " ~ O O 

as straight and true as it can be made ; and it is much ^\'orse 
when the shaft is not straight and true. 

The mode of proceeding is something like this : First 
cut the shaft to the length desired, leaving the ends square. 
The best plan for marking a shaft square for cutting off" is 
to fasten two strips of board together at right angles Mdth 
each other, each about five inches wide. They can be fas- 
tened together either with nails or screws, the latter are 
best. Then one end must be cut perfectly square — just as 
true as the iron or any other square used by the mechanic, 
K in cutting off" the end of the angle the saw should run 
either one way or the other, then the plane must lie used to 
make it square. The angle finished, one of the sides can be 
laid on the uppermost square of the shaft as it lays on the 
trestles or elsewhere, while the other side can be pressed 
against the second square below, or the one at right angles 
with the top, in the same manner as an ordinary square is 
held when squaring other kinds of lumber. Then along the 
end of the top angle, the same as along a square, a line may 



26 " PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

be drawn. This marks the second square. The angle can 
then be moved to the next square, when it can be marked 
in the same way, making sure that the two Unes meet each 
other; then the next square can be marked and so on all the 
way around. If the shaft is then cut off and dressed neatly 
to this line the end will be as near square with the body of 
the stick as it is possible to make it. 

It will be noticed that the wings of the gudgeons are 
thicker at the butt than at the other end, that is, the wings 
are wedge-shape. The thickness of the butt of the wings 
must be taken into account in mortising out the shaft to re- 
ceive them, as the butts want to fit snugly, while there 
should be a gradual widening of the mortise outward to the 
end to allow for wedging. The imprint of mortises or slots 
must be made on the ends of the shaft. These slots cross 
each other at right angles or ought to ; however, the shape 
of the gudgeon determines the shape of the slots. After 
they have been marked on the ends and carried back on the 
shaft the length of the wings, a good rip-saw can be used to* 
advantage in cutting them out, after which the butts can be 
bored through with a small Ijit or auger. A chisel must 
then be used for finishing the slots. There will probably be 
considerable cutting out around the center to receive the- 
body of the gudgeon, all of which will suggest itself to the 
workman. Wlien the slots are finished so as to allow the 
gudgeon to slip readily in place (it must not bind), a curf 
must be cut on each side of each slot and about one-quarter 
of an inch away. These curfs are to receive the w^edges. 
As should have been previously stated, in laying out the 
end of the shaft a circle of the diameter of the outer end of 
the wings should have been struck. It is common enough 
to strike both circles, that is, a circle for each end of gud- 
geon, the butt end being larger than the other. The last 
named circle, however, is not necessary; the necessity of 
the other will be discovered a little further on in the opera- 
tion. After all the preparations have been made, the gud- 
geon is put in place and temporary wedges used to secure it 



PUTTING GUDGEONS INTO WOODEN SHAFT. 27" 

while it is being trued. Any convenient mode of trueing 
and centering may be adopted; but the best probably is to 
procure a strip of board, which must be made straight on 
one edge, and about five or six feet long or longer, accord- 
ing to the length of the shaft. In one end of this strip, 
down through the edge, bore a small auger hole about three- 
eighths of an inch. Into this fit a pin neatly, but loose 
enough to move easily. One end of the pin must be dressed 
to a fine point. This ready, the straightened edge of the 
strip can be laid on the shaft with the end containing the pin. 
overhanging the gudgeon. The pointed end of the pin must 
then be pressed down until it touches the gudgeon, say at 
the extreme end. The strip must then be moved backward 
on the shaft, keeping the pin exactly over the center of the 
gudgeon. If, after moving the strip the length of the gud- 
geon, it is found the pin does not touch, it is an evidence 
that the extreme end is too high. This trial should be made- 
on a square containing one of the Mdngs. All the trials 
should be made on wing-squares of the shaft. AVliat is nee- 
essarj^ to do when the outer or extreme end of the gudgeon 
is too high, is to back the lower wedges on the other two 
wings, that is, the two running at right angles with the one 
the strip is resting on, and tighten the upper wedges, after 
which another trial must be made. It may be found just 
right the second time ; but it is not likely to be. It may 
have been lowered too much the first time, and, if so, it must 
be brought up by loosening the upper wedges and tighten- 
ing the lower. Wlien exactly true one way, the other must 
be tried and treated in the same way, until right. 

The gudgeon can be made true and straight by working 
from two sides, but cannot be centered in that way. For 
centering, the proof strip must be used on four sides ; and 
the centering and truing ought to both be done at the same 
time, for the reason that if, after it had been trued up and 
was on trial found to be not in center, it would have to be 
loosened again, thus necessitating double work, as it would 
take just as long to true it the second time as it did the first. 



28 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

After tlie truing and centering is completed, tlie end of 
tlie shaft must be dressed down to the wings ready for the 
bands. The iirst operation is to saw around the shaft at the 
butt of the wings so as to allow it to be dressed even with 
them ; then, by the use of a draw-knife or other tool, the 
end of the shaft can be shaved down, the circle on the end 
already provided being a guide between the wings. This 
done, the bands must be driven on — two or three, as may be 
required. There are generally two for conveyor shafts, and 
three for reel shafts, the gudgeons for reels being longer than 
for conveyors. The bands on snug and tight, the temporary 
wedges must be removed, permanent ones put in their place 
and driven in very hard. The permanent wedges should be 
from about nine to fourteen inches in length, according to 
length of gudgeon and not more than one-quarter to iive- 
;sixteenths of an inch thick at the butt. They should be made 
of hard wood, and of a width to suit the size of gudgeon. 

Large gudgeons, as for water-wheel shafts, are put in the 
same way as described, except when the bands are driven on 
they should be heated very hot. Smaller bands are some- 
times heated; but for ordinary reel and conveyor shafts this 
is not necessary, as they can be forced on tight enough when 
cold. 

The winged gudgeon is one of the oldest kind now in 
use, and one of the most troublesome to get in and adjust. 
A much more convenient pattern is now sometimes used. It 
consists simply of a flanged disk with the journal attached; 
both cast solidly together. The outside diameter of disk is 
a little less than the diameter of the shaft. The flange should 
be about three-fourths of an inch in depth, and about three- 
sixteenths in thickness, while the body of the disk should be 
about five-sixteenths of an inch thick. The inside of flange 
and inside face of disk should be turned out true from the 
same centers by which the journal is turned off. Through 
the body of disk and as near the periphery as convenient, 
there should be three bolt holes at equal distances apart. 
■Sometimes one bolt hole only is used, and that right through 



MAKING CONVEYORS. 2^ 

the center of journal. This, however, is not so good a plan 
as the other, as three bolts will hold better than one ; and, 
besides, if one of the three gets loose, the other two will hold 
the gudgeon in place until the third is tightened ; whereas, 
with but one, if the bolt gets loose the whole gudgeon is 
loose. 

The mode of putting in this kind of a gudgeon is to first 
make the end of shaft exactly square in the same manner as 
previously described; then strike a circle on the end in size 
corresponding with the inside diameter of flange. To this 
circle the shaft must be neatly dressed back to the depth ot 
the flange. If convenient to use a lathe, a much better job 
can be made; but if not, it can be done very neatly with a 
chisel. Wlien this is done the gudgeon will slip to its place, 
and when there, will be exactly true. To fasten it, joint 
bolts must be used. They may be seven to nine inches in 
length. This style of gudgeon can be put on in less time 
than a winged gudgeon, and can be made, if anything, truer 
and better every way. While I have no knowledge of gud- 
geons of this kind being used on very large shafts, such as 
water-wheel shafts, I have no doubt they could be used for 
that purpose just as well or better than the old-fashioned 
wing gudgeon. More bolts, and stronger, would have to be 
used to make it firm. 

It has not been very long since nothing but wooden con- 
veyors were used in this country, but in the past few years 
other styles have been adopted. Part wood and part iron 
have been for a long time in use. The wooden shafts are 
turned round, and iron spiral flights put on, forming a regu- 
lar screw or worm; and occasionally the ordinary flight is 
made of iron instead of wood. The best style of conveyor 
now in use is made with a continuous spiral of heavy sheet- 
iron, and fastened to a gas pipe for a shaft. This style of 
conveyor is very light, very durable, and very efiective, and 
is no doubt the best for all purposes that can be obtained. 
The different styles of iron conveyors are made by the pat- 
entees or manufacturers, and cannot very well be made by 



30 PKACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

millwrights as a general thing, and need not, therefore, any 
■description of the mode of making. But as the wooden 
conveyor is likely to be to a greater or less extent in vogue 
for many years to come, and as they have to be made by the 
millwright wherever he may happen to be doing a job of 
work, it is ' necessary that some attention should be paid to 
such in this connection. 

The mode of making a flight would be too tedious and 
could not be described intelligibly; and, besides, flights 
already finished and ready to drive can be bought from the 
various manufacturers much cheaper than they can be made 
by hand. As simple a plan as can be adopted for marking 
off" a shaft for the flights, is to procure a strip the width of 
one square of the shaft, and about ten inches in length. One 
end of this should be cut bevelling to correspond with the run 
of the conveyor, or, if liked better, the wooden angle used in 
squaring or in marking the end of shaft square, can be 
used by cutting one end of one of the sides of it to the re- 
quired bevel. A good average run for a conveyor for ordin- 
.ary purposes is about nine inches, although, if more work or 
less speed is required, or both, the run can be made longer 
— to sixteen inches, if desired. In the case of a nine-inch 
run, the bevel would be one inch and one-eighth to the 
square. To get at this correctly the strip must be first made 
the exact width of a square, then two square lines must be 
drawn across it near the end, exactly one and one-eighth of 
an inch apart. From the extreme of one of these lines to 
the opposite extreme of the other, a line must be drawn. 
This line should be made with the point of a knife deep and 
distinct. To the line thus made the end of strip should be 
cut off" and dressed exactly. It can then be laid on one of 
the squares and a pencil line drawn across the square along 
tlie prepared beveled end. It can then be moved to the 
next square and adjusted so as to meet the line last made, 
and another lead-pencil line drawn. The strip must be again 
moved to the next square, and so on until the shaft has been 
marked from end to end. After this has been done, center 



MAKING CONVEYORS. 31 

Fines should be made along each square with a chalk line, or 
by any other means. The last named line indicates the cen- 
ter of the holes that have to be bored for driving the flights. 
These should be bored just back of the angling pencil mark 
so that the face of the fliglit may be flush with the mark, 
which acts as a guide for driving the flight, and enables the 
workman to get a more perfect worm. 

There are, of course, other modes of laying out a con- 
veyor for driving the flights, but none better. A pair of 
dividers are sometimes used, set at nine inches for a nine- 
inch run, the starting point to be made where the first flight 
is to be driven, and that square of the shaft divided into 
nine-inch spaces. On the next square the starting point will 
be one and one-eighth of an inch forward of the first, and 
each successive square will have just that much the start of 
the last until all are divided ofi", when the shaft will be read}^ 
for boring and for dri\dng the flights as before. This method 
may be a little quicker than the other, and with a skilled 
"workman is probably good. It mil be found just as impor- 
tant in dressing flight not to have the auger holes too small, 
as it is not to have them too large; for while in a pine shaft, 
the w^ood being soft, a hard wood flight may be forced into a 
hole much too small, it is not near so liable to remain tight 
as thouo-h it were driven reasonablv tight at first. It is nee- 
essary only that the corners of the flight shall have a firm 
hold in the mortise. It will be secured much better than if 
the whole body of the flight tenon forced its passage into the 
shaft. 



ARTICLE V. 



THE BUILDING OF HUSK-FRAMES. SETTING AND ADJUSTING BED- 
STONE. TAKING IT OUT OF WIND. MAKING CURBS. 

There are many forms of liusk-frames, both of wood and 
iron; and to attempt to describe the mode of making all 
would be a useless task, and unnecessary for the reason that 
the millw^right so far advanced as to be able to construct any 
good form of a husk-frame, would be also able to adapt him- 
self to circumstance, and make whatever changes and modi- 
fications that might be needed in any case, or make entirely 
new models if necessary or thought expedient. 

One of the chief points to be considered is, to have the 
frame as open and free as possible. There should be no 
more posts than are really necessary to insure strength and 
rigidity. I have noticed a very convenient form of husk, on 
which were four run of stone in a nest, that had but eight 
posts. There were four main corner posts, and four addi- 
tional for supporting the bridge-trees, two of which were 
framed into the four corner posts and ran entirely through 
the husk; the other two were in turn framed into the first 
two bridge-trees in such a manner as to form a square. On 
each of the four sides of the scjuare thus formed were placed 
a tram-pot and step for sustaining the spindle. The ends of 
the two principle bridge-trees in this kind of a frame, as well 
as being double-tenoned, should be well boxed into the 
posts, as they have to sustain all the weight, including the 
spindles and burrs. This plan of husk-frame is very conve- 
nient on account of its being so open and accessible. Little 
or no trouble is experienced in getting into the gearing, 
which is most favorable for filling the crown wheel, a job 
that has to be done quite often. 



BUILDING HUSK-FRAME. 33 

The more substantial plan is to have a pair of posts to 
each bridge-tree or for each run of stone, especially when the 
burrs are in a single line ; but when in nests this, of course, 
cannot be done. The time is, though, probably coming 
when no more frames will be built in that way. It is so 
much better in every way to have the burrs all in a single 
line, that ere long it will be generally adopted. Few new 
mills are now built in any other way. It is true, spur gear- 
ing cannot be used to good advantage; and it is just as well 
not, because, if gearing be used at all, bevel gearing answers 
the purpose as well or better. The most popular and un- 
doubtedly the best mode of driving the burrs is by means of 
belts ; but whether by bevel gear or belt, the frame so con- 
structed as to have a pair of posts for each run of stone, is 
equally well adapted to either, as the belt can be so adjusted 
either open or reel as to run around the post. 

The framing in a husk-frame ought to be very carefully 
done, and the tenons made to fit the mortises very snug and 
tight. No pins should be used, but, instead, long bolts or 
rods with a nut on both ends. These should run through 
from cap to sill, and crosswise from cap to cap at top (at the 
ends of the frame), and from sill to sill at bottom. With these 
rods the frame can be drawn together very tight, and kept 
so by being careful to tighten up as the lumber shrinks. 

Iron husk-frames, as a matter of course, are built by the 
general mill-furnisher and manufacturers, and according to 
different plans. The base of an iron frame or a combination 
of them, as is the case where two or more run are put on one 
frame, rests upon a separate and independent pedestal, while 
the tops are all joined together either with iron or wood. 
The latter mode is preferable, because in a long frame all 
joined together, iron to iron, the constant contraction and 
expansion incident to the changes of temperature keeps the 
spindles most of the time out of tram. Wlien joined together 
mth wooden string pieces this cannot occur — to any ap- 
preciable extent, at least. Parties who are getting mills built 
should bear ^this fact in mind ; and when contracting for a 

3 



34 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

mill to be furnisliecl with an iron husk-frame, they should 
see that the frame is so constructed as to prevent the difficul- 
ties spoken of. 

The size of timbers to be used in wooden frames must 
depend on the size of frame and the number of run it is to 
contain or support, and the manner in which it is built. 
This matter should be left to the judgment of the mill- 
wright. Doubtless the best plan of finishing the top of the 
husk-frame is to have the timbers all flush. For each run of 
stone there should be two main bearers running across the 
top of frame, and tenoned into the main cap. The distance 
apart of these bearers must be deterndned by the size of the 
burrs. Between the main bearers must be fixed two short 
cross-trees in such a manner as to form a square, the center 
of which will be the center of the spindle. On this square 
the bed-stone must be set; or, if liked best, it can be let 
down say six inches in the frame, which then answers both 
for a bearer and a binder. But if this plan is not liked, a 
separate binding frame can be made, and laid on and fas- 
tened to the main frame. 

It is an old-fashioned practice, and a very good one, to 
bind the stone with wooden keys driven between the stone 
and the frame. A key-seat should be cut in each of the 
four sides of the frame, and four keys fitted snugly in these 
seats and against the stone. After the stone has been placed 
and centered, these four keys must be driven at once or in 
such a manner as not to displace the stone. After they have 
been made securely tight, they must be cut off even with the 
frame so that the stone can be faced or curbed around. 

The best and. most convenient plan for fastening or bind- 
ing the bed-stone is to use set-bolts, four of them to each 
run, having broad, heavy nuts. These nuts to be fastened 
into the timbers inside the frame, one in each of the four 
sides; the bolts run through from the outside of the frame, 
each of them pointing to the center of the stone. When the 
stone has been placed, these four bolts are to be tightened 
up in the same manner as the keys, or for the same purpose. 



SETTING AND ADJUSTING BED-STONE. 35 

and in sucli a way as not to move the stone out of place. If, 
however, the stone should be displaced, it is quite easy to 
readjust it by gradually loosening on one side and tighten- 
ing on the other. To operate these bolts after everything 
has been closed up, hand-holes should be left in the floor of 
the husk, 'neatly closed by hatches snugly fitted into the 
opening. 

For leveling the stone a similar device must be used. 
Three set-bolts running up from below through the bearers, 
with broad, heavy nuts set in above, will answer the purpose. 
There should be fixed in the plaster on the back or under 
side of the stone, at the points where it rests on the bolts, 
small iron plates, or metal plates of any kind, to receive the 
points of the bolts. Thus, with bolts to level and bolts to 
adjust centrally, it becomes a very easy task to fiji a bed- 
stone in good shape, and when fixed it can be firmly held in 
place. By fixing a center in the eye of the bed-stone after it 
has been centered and fastened, and suspending a center 
plumb to the bridge-tree below, the tram-pot can be centered 
■exactly and fastened, after which the spindle can be put in 
place and trammed. It may not prove, if on trial the spin- 
dle shows out of tram, that it is all in the spindle ; on the 
contrary, if great care has been exercised in centering the 
tram-pot, it would go to prove that the face of the stone 
was out; but if the face of the stone proves, on a test with a 
perfectly true spirit-level, to be right, it is best not to move 
it, but to adjust the spindle to it. There should, however, 
be no doubt about the face of the stone being level. 

The common mode of tramming is to attach a strip of 
board, one end of it mortised to suit the spindle, to the 
square part of the neck of the spindle. The strip must be 
long enough to reach to the skirt of the stone. To the out- 
er end of strip, by means of a gimlet-hole, a quill piece of 
steel wire, or some similar substance, must be fastened. 
This must be adjusted so as to touch the highest part of the 
stone. The spindle must then be turned until the tram-stri].» 
or arm indicates the opposite side of the stone. The difter- 



36 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

ence must then be noted, and the foot of the spindle moved 
to suit as near as can be judged. The spindle must again be 
turned around, and the quill adjusted to strike the high 
place again. Then the foot of spindle must be moved to 
suit, as before, and again it must be tried by turning the 
spindle around. This mode of working, trying first the face 
of the stone and then adjusting the face of spindle to suity 
must be continued until it is right, which it will be when 
the quill touches lightly all around. 

This result cannot, of course, be accomplished unless the 
stone is entirely out of wind and in good face. A bed-stone 
can be taken out of wind mainl}^ by the use of the tram as a 
guide, if sufficient care is exercised. A narrow strip of the 
face next the skirt must be dressed all the way around ex- 
actly to the point of the quill. Afterward the center of the 
stone can be dressed to the line thus made by the use of the 
red staff. A good circular proof and red staff are, however^ 
much better adapted to the purpose ; and the stone ought to 
be dressed out of wind before putting down, so as to avoid 
any trouble of that kind in tramming. It is assumed that the 
husk has been floored over before the stones have been 
placed ; and here it would be well enough to say that the 
top of husk-frame should be raised above the level of the 
main floor — how much must be determined by the taste of 
the parties interested. There should be an elevation of at 
least six inches ; ten or twelve inches are not out of the way. 
Many frames are raised even higher, but it is best not to be 
extreme in the matter. After the bed-stone has been placed 
and secured, it must be faced around with, say, about one 
and one-quarter inch plank, cut in circle segments to suit the 
size of stone. These should be about six inches deep, and 
should be fitted closely to the stone so as to prevent the meal 
from leaking through and being wasted ; also the butt joints 
should be fitted closely together. To this facing the bottom 
of the curb has to be fitted, consequently it should have an 
even surface on top. The face of the stone should stand 
above the wooden facing about an inch when first put down. 



MAKING CURBS. 37 

Curbs are now chiefly made of staves. The staves are 
dressed out two and one-half to three inches inside. Gener- 
^11}' they alternate, pine and walnut, and are bound top and 
bottom with walnut strips. This makes a very durable as 
M^ell as a very fancy curb. The most convenient way of 
constructing a stave curb is to first make the top in the or- 
dinary way, and fasten to the under side of it a circle of wood 
in diameter equal to the inside of curb. To this circle the 
.staves can be fastened as they are fitted. A light iron hoop 
can be driven on the other end of staves to hold the curb in 
place until bound around and finished. Care should be 
taken in dressing out the staves to have them of such width 
:as will fill the circle even, so as not to have to close with a 
narrow or wide stave ; it spoils the looks of the curb. To 
make a "sprung" curb, a perfectly clear pine board that will 
dress an inch in thickness must be selected. This should be 
evenly planed to a gauge both in Avidth and thickness. Then 
-a^ gauge line should be run on both edges, three-sixteenths 
scant or a strong eighth, from what is intended to be the 
outside of the curb. The inside of the board must then be 
marked off" in regular spaces for curfing. The number of 
spaces must be determined by the width of saw curf. Ordi- 
narily it requires about ninety-six cuts; if the saw is very 
coarse, less will be required ; if unusually fine, more wdll 
have to be made. The curf lines must be drawn square 
across the board, and square lines must be made on the edges 
from the curf lines to the gauge lines. After all is ready it 
must be sawed down very carefully on the lines made, and 
down to the gauge lines, but not over them ; when this is 
done, the board must be laid on the floor or bench, curfed 
side down, and covered over with shavings, on which a rea- 
sonable quantity of hot water must be poured for the pur- 
pose of steaming and toughening the fibres of the board, to 
p)revent it from breaking while springing into shape. 
When, in the judgment of the workman, the board is sufli- 
•ciently toughened, it must be Ijent in shape by two persons 
taking hold of it, one at each end. When the ends are 



38 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



forced together, tliey must be held so until fastened, which 
is done b}^ lapping with a solid piece circled out to suit, or a 
short curfed piece similar to the body of the curb. A curb 
made in this way must be bound around top and bottom the 
same as the stave curb ; this is necessary to brace and stiifen 
it. Walnut or pine, according to taste, may be used. 




ARTICLE VI. 



DRAFT OF FURROWS DRESSING PUTTING IN THE 

IRONS BALANCING. 

There is, perhaps, no way as yet to determine the exact 
draft the furrows of a mill-stone should have ; and it is also 
true that there is no positive or arbitrary line or rule of ac- 
tion. There is no doubt that the draft could vary very 
materially in two different run, both in the same mill, and 
the fact go unnoticed by the most expert miller if he had no 
other e^ddence than the kind of work each was doing. All 
other things being equal, there would be no appreciable dif- 
ference. The common rule is to allow one inch draft to 
each foot of diameter: thus, a three-foot burr would have 
three inches draft, and a four-foot burr, four inches. The 
draft measured from the shoulder, or back edge of furrow. 
As to the number of furrows to the quarter, there may be 
some ground for dispute. One thing is quite clear : if the 
draft for the leading furrow just indicated approximates very 
closely to what it ought to be, the third furrow in a three- 
quarter dress gets a long way from it. Therefore, if there 
be any value in a uniformity of draft, the fewer furrows 
there are to the quarter the better; and hence it would seem 
reasonable that a two-quarter dress would be better than 
three. The number of quarters is determined by the size 
of the stone. .Land and furrow space should be about equal. 
In some cases there should be less land than furrow space; 
but that part of the subject will be referred to further on in 
the work. For a pair of burrs to run A^ith the sun, the fur- 
roAvs should run to the right of the center, and the inner end 
of the leading furrow four inches from the center in a four- 



40 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

foot stone, allowing one incli draft to the foot. To run 
against the sun, the furrows should run to the left side of the 
center. The furrows in both upper and lower burr run in 
the same direction. 

There is a great deal more importance to be attached to 
dressing the furrows than to the draft; for on the kind of 
dress depends largely the kind of w^ork the burrs will do. 
If the dress is bad, it generally follows that the work will be 
bad, also. The bottom of furrow should be dressed very 
even and very smooth, and drawn out to a firm, feather- 
edge. There should not be even the semblance of a shoul- 
der on the feather-edge of a furrow; no obstruction of any 
kind; nothing but a smooth, gradual incline up to the land. 
A reasonable depth only at the eye should be allowed, say, a 
scant quarter of an inch, gradual^ lessening as it approaches 
the skirt, where an eighth of an inch is deep enough ordi- 
narily. As to whether the furrow should be of equal width 
from end to end is a matter of no great importance, except 
that to have the bottom of furroAv out of wind, it is neces- 
sary to have the inner end a little Avider than the outer 
on account of its being deeper. There is no reason why 
the inner end should be the deepest, except to accommo- 
date the greater volume of material to be ground in pro- 
portion to the surface. As the material approaches the 
outer edge of the burrs the volume becomes relatively less, 
and less depth is needed because it is then divided between 
furrow and land, while at the eye it is chiefly all furrow. 

The stone should be lower around the eye than at the 
skirt. If it were possible to make it so, the burr should 
have a gradually inclined surface from the eye to the peri- 
phery, or at least very near the periphery. It would, per- 
haps, be best to have three or four inches of the outside sur- 
faces parallel. The balance of the face to the eye should 
be a graduated bosom. The face, as well as the furrows, 
should be comparatively smooth; if cracked at all, very light. 
The natural grit of a good stone, if in perfect face, is all that 
is needed for granulating. 



PUTTING IN IRONS. 41 

Putting the irons in the ])iirrs sometimes falls to the lot 
of the millwright even now; although, as a general thing, 
the stones are furnished complete by the manufacturer or 
mill-furnisher. It is no difficult matter to get the hush in 
the bed-stone, as the opening is usually large enough to 
admit it. All that is necessar}" to do is to place it in a true 
position, about an inch below the face of the stone, fasten it 
temporarily with small wooden wedges or other appliances; 
after which prepared calcined plaster can be mixed with 
water to the consistency of a stiff paste, and run around the 
bush. This sets very quick and makes a good, permanent 
fastening. " • 

To put in the balance-rynd is quite a ditferent and more 
difficult task. In the first place the stone must be mortised 
for the lugs. This is done with diamond-pointed tools in the 
shape of cold-chisels. These mortises should be deep 
enough to allow the rim of the rynd to drop below the face 
at least one inch. After the rynd has been fitted to its place, 
and before fastening, the spindle, with driver, should be 
placed in it and the tram applied. The driving sides of the 
driver should be forced to a bearing on the lugs of the rynd 
by little iron wedges, or an}i;hing else suitable ; and then, 
instead of adjusting the driver, it should remain fixed, and 
the rynd moved to suit the requirements of the case, or until 
the spindle shows in tram. The rynd is then temporarily 
fastened mth iron wedges, until molten lead or brimstone 
can be prepared for running around it. Brimstone is pref- 
erable to lead, chiefly for the reason that it is not poisonous. 
There can no harm result from lead unless particles of it 
should become detached and be ground with the wheat. It 
would then poison the flour. 

After the stones have been ironed properly, set and ad- 
justed, and everything else connected with them in good 
shape, the balancing of the runner has to be attended to. 
The standing balance of a burr is easily enough obtained, 
but how to get a running balance puzzles the brain of many 
a man who supposes he has a pretty thorough knowledge of 



42 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

the business. This arises from the fact tliat in the past 
much less attention was given to running balances than now» 
Before milling was reduced to so fine an art as it now is, a 
good standing balance was all that was considered necessary ; 
but in these days of even granulation and scientific millings 
generall}^ a stone must have not only a good standing bal- 
ance, but a good running balance as well ; and the miller or 
millwright who cannot put a stone in good standing and 
running balance is considered " off." The standing balance 
is necessary in order to have the stone and machinery con- 
nected with it to run smoothly. The running balance is 
necessary in order to have the stone grind or granulate 
evenly. A stone out of running balance runs with one side 
high, and the opposite lower, and hence the cause of uneven 
granulation. The great reason that getting a stone in run- 
ning balance is, and has been, so little understood, is, be- 
cause millers and millwrights pay so little attention to the 
principles controlling the operation ; nor can the operation 
be made intelligible without understanding why it is that,, 
after a stone has been put in complete standing balance, it 
should run with one side high when put in motion. 

There is no doubt that the same result has been ob- 
served many times in other ways without knowing the 
cause, or, at least, without discovering the relation. Almost 
every man, when a school boy, has made an indention in the 
center of his slate, and tried to suspend it on the point of hi& 
pencil. This he could rarely do when in a state of rest; but 
soon discovered that by whirling it, it would remain sus- 
pended, and nearly on a level plane while the motion was 
rapid enough; but as soon l.s the motion would cease it 
would drop off. The same iiing has been noticed b}" at- 
taching a weight to the end of a cord, and giving it a rapid,, 
whirling motion. The weight will at once come up almost on 
a plane with the hand holding the cord; when the motion 
ceases it drops back. And, again, when the governor of a 
. steam engine is in a state of rest the balls seem inclined to 
get as close to each other as possible ; but when the engine 



BALANCING RUNNERS. 4-5 

is put in motion tliey apparently repel each other, and en- 
deavor to climb up to the plane of suspensioi"!. The same 
cause that impels these bodies upward, impels upward the 
side of the burr that runs high. This is called centrifugal 
force, or a tendency to fly outward from the center. It i& 
the opposite of the attraction of gravitation. There is no 
positive force at work in raising these bodies upward; it 
may be considered rather as a negative force. The tendency 
is outward; and when tied, as by a cord or otherwise, the 
greatest distance outward can be attained only by climbing 
upwards; and up it will climb, if the motion be rapid 
enough, until the plane of suspension is reached, but never 
above it. These laws of motion control the workings of the 
mill-stone when in motion. All mill-stones (runners) meas- 
ure sixteen inches and upward through. The point of suspen- 
sion is at least half the distance from the face, usually more. 
It ought to be three-fifths of the thickness of the stone from 
the face to the cock-eye. In consequence of this rftode of 
suspension, there is a great deal of weight both above and 
below the point; and while the burr may have been very 
evenly balanced standing, it may be that in one block much 
of the weight is concentrated, instead of being generally 
distributed. In that case, as soon as the burr be put in 
rapid motion, the heavy point will tend upward, and, of 
course, throw the opposite side down. The tendency of the 
weight is to get as far as possible from the perpendicular- 
center of motion ; and to do that it must go up. It can not 
go down, because by so doing it approaches nearer the cen- 
ter. If the heavy weight shoidd be above the point of sus- 
pension, or near the back of the stone, the opposite effect 
would be the result of putting the stone in motion. The 
tendency would be down instead of up; and for the same 
reason, by inclining upward, the center of motion is ap- 
proached ; by dropping down the distance is increased. 

There is a great liability to concentrate too much weight 
in one point in giving the stone a standing balance, particu- 
larly if the stone be much out. Sometimes ten to twentv 



44 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

pounds of lead are put in one spot to get a standing balance. 
This is sure to make the stone run " out." It will be under- 
stood by what has been said that, when a burr is too heavy 
below, it will run up at the heavy point; and if too heavy 
above, it will run down at that point. This fact understood, 
and the reasons therefor, the practical part of putting a burr 
in running balance ought to be readily comprehended with 
a little instruction. The first part of the operation is to 
ch^ess out some strips, about one-quarter inch thick and two 
inches wide. They must be dressed to an exact thickness, 
.and laid across the face of the bed-stone, three of them, in 
the form of a triangle, with the ends fastened to 'the facing 
around the bed-stone to hold them in place. The runner 
must then be put in position and let down on the strips ; after 
which a suitable rest must be fixed over the back of the run- 
ner for the purpose of turning it off. The strips are used to 
hold the stone steady. If left free it would oscillate to such 
an ext^it that it could not be turned true ; and if let hard 
down on the bed-stone it would burn and damage both. By 
rubbing on the wooden strips it is held in place and no harm 
done. The mode of securing rest and turning off' will sug- 
gest itself. After the back has been finished perfectly ture, 
as it ought to be, the strips can be removed and the stone 
lowered a little. It will then be ready for a trial. The eye 
will tell whether it is in running balance or not as soon as 
it is put in motion; but it cannot without aid locate the ex- 
.act high or low spot. To do this a finely pointed lead-pencil 
can be used. It must be held carefully against the rest, in 
the same manner as the chisel in turning off. Whenever 
the pencil touches the stone, it must be removed, and the 
stone stopped. An inspection will then show the high 
point, as it will be marked. By remembering the principle 
involved, it will be known there is one of two things cer- 
tain : either the point that is marked by the pencil is too 
heavy below the point of suspension, or the opposite point 
is too heavy above. 

It is assumed the stone has been put in standing balance 



BALANCING RUNNERS. 4-> 

before trying the running balance; and it is also assumed 
tliat the stone is provided with balance-pockets, as they are 
all now made in this country ; and it is further assumed that 
the common mode of balancing has been adopted, that is, 
with circular lead weights, a little less in diameter than the 
pockets, so that they can be put in and taken our freely. 
These weights are prepared by cutting moulds of different 
depths in a pine, or other soft wood plank, into which mol- 
ten lead is poured to form the weights. Xow, it may be 
that the pencil mark ma}^ be right over a pocket, in the bot- 
tom of which a number of these lead weights have been put 
in getting a standing balance. Kthat be true it will be evi- 
dence that the weight is too low, thus causing the stone to 
run high at that point. To get the weight up nearer the 
back of the stone, a few circular pine blocks must be made,, 
the lead lifted out of the pocket, and the blocks put in place 
of it. The lead must be then put back. The blocks will 
not affect the standing balance, being very light, but they 
serve to raise the lead and may thereby secure a running- 
balance. It may be found, after putting the stone in motion 
again, that it still runs too high at the point; if so, it will 
probably be necessary to use more lead. A given amount 
for trial must be put in the top of the pocket already loaded, 
and an equal amount in the bottom of the opposite pocket. 
Or, instead of running high, it might be found on trial that 
the high point ran low, and the opposite ran high. In that 
case it would be evident that the weight had been raised too 
high. To remedy that, some of the wooden blocks must be 
taken out and the weight let down, and the stone again put 
in motion to observe the result. If it now be discovered 
that this point again runs high, it will be proof that the 
weight was dropped too low and must be raised again by the 
addition of one or more blocks ; but if it still runs low, the 
weight must be dropped lower down by taking out one or 
more blocks. But, to go back again, if after the weight has^ 
all been raised to or near the top, and the burr still runs 
high at that point, as has been stated, more lead must 1)e- 



46 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

iidclecl to the loaded pocket, and a precisely ecjual amount 
placed in the bottom of the opposite pocket; and if the same 
point still runs too high, more lead must be added, an equal 
amount to each pocket. But if, on the contrary, the pre- 
vious high point should run too low, then an equal amount 
■of lead must be taken out of each pocket. It must be re- 
membered to keep the standing balance in view all the time; 
and hence the necessity for adding to, or taking from, equal 
amounts each time when working in two opposite pockets. 

It is not often that a running balance can be obtained 
until after many trials ; nor is it often that it can be got by 
working from two points alone. If often happens that two 
pockets have to be weighted in getting a standing balance; 
and when so, four will probably have to be used in getting 
the running balance. But whether two or four, it must not 
be forgotten that when taking weight from, or adding to, 
■opposite points, the amounts must always be equal. To 
make a high point run low, the M^eight must be raised; and 
to make a low point run high, the weight must be lowered. 
Whenever one point runs too high and the opposite too low, 
as a matter of course to equalize it, the weight must be 
placed near the top or back of the stone at the high side, 
and near the bottom or face on the low side; that is, if it 
cannot be fixed by raising or lowering in the one pocket. 

There are patented devices or attachments that work in 
these pockets which raise and lower the weights with a 
acrew, and act substantially as the mode just described. The 
siame rules govern the raising and lowering of the weights 
in both cases. It sometimes occurs that, owing to the heavy 
and irregular parts of the stone coming between the pockets, 
it is impossible to get a good balance, standing or running. 
In such a case a standing balance can be obtained b}^ making 
an opening in the plaster on the back of the stone, and pour- 
ing in melted lead; and there are still burrs in operation 
that have never been provided with balance pockets. In 
either case some other mode besides the one described by 
the pockets will have to be devised. A very simple, though 



BALANCING RUNNERS. 47 

liomely metliocl, is to procure two light hoop-iron bands to 
go loosely around the stone. It would be better to have the 
band made open, with small lugs at either end, and a bolt 
to tighten it up. One of these bands must be placed near 
the top of the stone and the other near the bottom. Little 
wooden wedges can be forced in between the stone and 
band at intervals around the stone, and the bolt tightened 
sufficiently to hold it ; or, if there shoidd be no bolt, the 
wedges must be forced in tight enough to hold it. These 
bands are now supposed to be far enough away from the 
stone to allow small bars of lead to pass between, double 
over, and hang on the band. To utilize these bands for get- 
ting a running balance, the same rules must be observed as 
in the other case. At that point running high the lead bars 
must be attached to the upper band, while on the opposite 
side it must be fixed to the lower band; and if it still runs 
high at the same point more lead must be added, to both 
places equal amounts; but if, on the contrary, the order is 
changed, and it runs high where it had previously run lo^^', 
then an equal amount of lead must be taken from each place. 
One advantage this arrangement possesses is, that no matter 
where the pencil touches, or where the stone runs high, that 
precise point can be reached with the weight, and it is, there- 
fore, much less trouble to get an exact running balance in 
this way than b}" the other. This mode is here introduced 
merely to show how it can be done. The operator can in- 
vent any other method that ma}- suit him better. 



ARTICLE VII. 



RIGID OR LOOSE DRIVERS MOTION — PORTABLE MILLS 

SPEED OF BURRS. 

Many millers and millwrights are now advocating rigid 
drivers for mill-stones ; that is to say, the stone should be 
fastened rigidly to the spindle. There is probably, no 
doubt, when in a state of perfection, but that a rigid driv- 
ing attachment answers the purpose well ; better, possibly, 
than the ordinary method ; but the difficulty is to secure and 
keep perfection. It is quite evident that if, in order to do 
even granulating, it be necessary to have the faces of the 
stones exactly parallel to each other, the moment the face of 
the runner gets the least out, or at an angle, be it ever so 
slight, with the face of the bed-stone, that moment even 
granulation ceases if the runner be rigidly fastened to the 
spindle. It is well-known that, owing to the strain on the 
spindle caused by the pressure of the driving apparatus, 
either belt or gear, and for other reasons, it is next to im- 
possible to keep the spindle constantly in tram. This being 
the fact, it will be readily enough understood how difficult 
it will be to keep the faces of the stones parallel with each 
other when the runner is fastened rigidly to the spindle, be- 
cause whenever the perpendicular of the spindle is dis- 
turbed, so also will the parallel of the face be disturbed; 
and the longer the stone runs without tramming, the worse 
it will get. It is, perhaps, not absolutely necessary that the 
stones should be adjusted to each other to a hair's breadth; 
but it is necessary that the adjustment should be practical 
and kept so, in order to obtain the best results. With a 
rigidly hung runner this cannot be done unless the spindle 




MUNSON'S PORTABLE MILL, 



Made by MUNSON BROS. Utica, N. Y. 

(See Appendix.) 



RIGID OR LOOSE DRIVERS. 49 

can be kept constantly in tram. It is not argued that it is 
impossible to do this; but it is maintained that it is very 
difficult to do so, even under the most favorable circum- 
stances. The same obstacles present themselves to some 
extent where the runner is attached loosely to the spindle. 
The spindle is just as liable to get out of tram, but it does 
not have quite the same effect on the face of the stone. It 
is true that the nearer the spindle is in tram in either case , 
the better the work performed; but the face of the loosely 
hung runner does not obey the behest of the spindle so 
promptly and so inevitably as does the rigidl}^ hung runner. 
If properly adjusted and well balanced, the loosely hung 
runner will preserve its line of motion unless the spindle is 
too much out of tram. 

It would, from this mode of reasoning, seem to follow 
that in practice the Avell-attached and well-balanced loosely 
hung runner is to be preferred to the rigidly hung, at least 
until some better method of adjusting and permanently fix- 
ing the rigid combination than is now known be discovered. 

That even granulation is necessary to the best results in 
flour making recjuires no proof, as it is universally admitted ; 
therefore, any method of hanging or attaching the runner to 
the spindle that will insure the most perfect relation between 
the faces of the two burrs when in operation, because on that 
depends even granulation, is the best. It cannot be done 
with the rigidly hung runner unless the spindle can be kept 
constantly in tram. It can be with the loosely hung runner, 
all other things being right and equal, whether the spindle 
be exactly in tram or not. It w^ould follow, therefore, that 
until the rigid arrangement has been so far perfected that 
the spindle will neither spring, nor in any other way get out 
of tram when at work, the other is the best method, and may 
be the best under any circumstances. In attaching the driv- 
ing apparatus to the stone it is necessary that both sides of 
the driver should bear with about equal force, othermse the 
stone will be forced out of its proper position, causing one 
side to run hi2:h and the other low. The fact that drivers 



50 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

SO often work badly (having a bearing on but one side and 
causing the stone to tip,) is one of the strongest arguments 
in favor of the rigid fastening; for when the stone is fastened 
to the spindle no other driver is needed, nor can there be 
any tipping on account of a bad working driver. But with 
a reasonable amount of care there is no occasion for having 
ii faulty or bad working driver, as the most obstinate unad- 
justable driver can be made to work right; or, if it can not, 
then some good adjustable driver can be put in its place. 
Adjustable drivers are very numerous and some of them very 
goocL 

The plan for putting a driver into a bail already in the 
stone, is to place the spindle in position, the same as de- 
scribed when setting the balance rynd ; tram it to the face of 
the stone ; then fit the driver with cold chisel and file until 
it bears equally on both driving lugs. It sometimes requires 
a great deal of patience and skill to make a good fit in put- 
ting a new driver into an old burr with the irons already in, 
but it should not be abandoned until right. Another essen- 
tial in even granulation is in having a steady, regular motion 
to the stone. There is far more importance attached to this 
one point than is generally supposed. This is especially so 
in old mills, when the husk frame is in bad order, and the 
gearing generally badly worn. Uncler conditions of that 
kind it is impossible to get the steady motion needed for 
good results without some way of regulating the motion. 
This is best done by a spring of some kind. The value of a 
.spring is not confined to old, rickety mills alone, but also 
.adds materially to the result in the best constructed new 
mills, be it driven either with belt or gear. The main line 
driving the burrs should have attached to it a strong spring, 
.and on each of the spindles should be another. A recipro- 
cating steam engine cannot be constructed to give a positive- 
ly uniform motion. It must lose while passing the center, 
^md gain immediately after ; and while this loss is not per- 
ceptible to the eye, or sensible to the touch, yet it can be 
readily detected when the proper means are applied for the 



PORTABLE MILLS. 51 

purpose. There may not be the same difference with water 
wheels as motors; but there is, no doubt, sutiicient to war- 
rant the use of springs on the spindles at least. Steam 
engines of short stroke and quick motion should always be 
used for driving Hour mills, as the variation in motion can- 
not be so great as with long-stroke, slow-moving engines. 

Portable mills are now, and have been much in vogue in 
this country for many purposes; and some of them are most 
•excellent. Wliere mills have already been completed with 
a full complement of burrs on the husk frame, it is very con- 
venient to add one or more portable mills, as the case may 
be, for the purpose of grinding middlings; or, in grist mill, 
if unprovided for in the start, a portable mill comes handy 
for grinding feed. For this purpose the runner may be at- 
tached rigidl}^ to the spindle, as rapid work is of far more 
importance than even granulation. A rigid under runner 
portable mill is much the best for grinding feed, as it can be 
kept hard up to the work. It is, perhaps, not so important 
whether the runner is upper or lower. So long as it is rigid, 
it can be kept hard to the work in either case. One among 
the best arrangements for portable mills is to have the under 
stone hung on a cock-head, the same as the upper runner. 
Ordinarily by this means, with well-balanced stones, just as 
even granulation can be done as in the other way, with the 
iidvantage of greater grinding capacity if required. A small 
mill built on this plan will do the work just as well, and a 
great deal more of it, than can be done on an equal sized 
stone on the other plan, that is, with the upper stone for the 
runner. 

It is probably impossible to fix a uniform speed for burrs 
under all circumstances ; but, the following table of mini- 
mum speeds will come near enough for good results. In 
varying, the speeds should be made rarely, if ever, above the 
tabled speed: 



o:^ 



PRACTICAL 'HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



Stoue. 


(Wintei 


■iS inches in diameter. 


... 150 


i2 


... 172 


36 


... 200 


30 


... 240 


24 " 


... 300 


20 


... 360 


16 


... 450 


12 


... 600 


8 " " . 


... 900 


6 " " . 


...1200 



Soft Varieties. Hard Varieties. 

(Spring.) 

150 i-evolutions. 120 revolutions. 
138 
160 
192 
240 
288 
360 
480 
720 
960 




ARTICLE VIII. 

'CLEANING WHEAT MACHINES AND THEIR LOCATION. 

Cleaning the wheat properly before grinding is a matter 
that receives far less attention than it deserves. Wheat for 
grinding cannot be too well cleaned, so long as the coating 
is preserved. IsTo process of cleaning that mars or breaks 
the covering of the berry can be considered good. No at- 
tempt should be made to break the berry for the purpose of 
removing chit, germ, or anything else. These can be sepa- 
rated from the flour after the wheat has been ground. All 
that should ever be attempted by a scouring process is to re- 
m<we all of the dirty, fuzzy foreign substances that adhere to 
the berry. Any means or process that will make the berry 
•clean without breaking it is good, and can be safely used. 
Any means or process that does in any way break the berry, 
no matter what is claimed for it, is essentially bad, and for 
this reason : if a kernel of wheat should be broken sufii- 
■ciently to expose the flour, as is always liable to be the case 
in any hard scouring process, it becomes a prey to the dust 
.and dirt already scoured off, which is very apt to adhere 
tenaciously to the flour exposed portions, be ground down 
with it, and become so intimately mingled with the flour that 
it is impossible to separate them, and the consequence is bad 
•colored flour. There is but little doubt that flour is spoiled 
in color, to a greater or less extent, in this way, without 
those interested kno\\'ing the cause. This may not be con- 
.sidered a very serious evil, and probably is not; but it is 
nevertheless one of the evils and drawbacks to making good 
flour: one that cam be easily remedied, and should be, by 
.always selecting machines or modes of scouring that will in 



54 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

no way break the bran. If that is done, there can be no- 
trouble from that cause. 

By far the most important part to be performed in clean- 
ing wheat successfully is to separate it thoroughly. This by 
many millers is, unfortunately, considered of but trifling im- 
portance; and 3^et a much greater mistake in reference to 
the matter could hardly be made. There are some seasons, 
in some localities possibly every season, that not more than 
one-half the wheat is fit for a high grade of flour ; and unless- 
this half can be separated from the balance and ground 
alone, no high grade of flour can be made. This is often the 
experience of millers in various sections of this country, and 
probably other countries as well. 

Most of the leading flour-makers work up a reputation 
for one or more brands of good flour during a time when 
wheat is of good quality; but when the poor quality season 
comes around, as it is sure to do, they then find it impossi- 
ble to keep up the grade, simply for the reason that they 
continue to separate, clean and mill in other respects just as- 
they did when the wheat was all of good quality. They 
grind all the wheat together under tlie wild delusion that 
good and bad wheat mixed ought to make good flour. In- 
stead of doing this, the separating facilities at least should be 
largely increased, and every grain of wheat unfit for the 
higher grades of flour removed. The good that is left (there 
is always some good,) can be safely risked to make the high 
grades; while the remainder can be ground into grades 
about equal in market (probabl}" not quite equal in value,) to 
that made by grinding it all together. 

The true way is to arrange for cleaning and separating 
properly the worst crop; and then when wheat is good 
enough in quality not to need so much cleaning and sepa- 
rating, a portion of the machinery can stand idle until needed 
again. It is not to be expected that as good results gener- 
ally can be obtained, or as much money made by making 
flour out of a bad crop as can be done when the Avheat is all, 
or nearly all, good ; but it is far better to maintain the rep- 



CLEANING WHEAT. 55 

utatioii of good, brands of flour, even if it is done at a slight 
loss, because a reputation and trade once lost is not so easily 
regained in these days of close and sharp competition. 

The first cleaning operation is through what may l^e 
styled a receiving machine. This is designed for removing 
weeds, sticks, straws, and other rough matter not belonging 
to the wheat. This machine may be built in the mill, or, 
what is better, it may be bought from the manufacturer, as 
such machines are made by manufacturers that are complete 
and ready for operation when leaving the shop, and are first- 
class in every respect, and do excellent work. During the 
oif seasons, when wheat is very bad, more than one opera- 
tion of this kind is essential. It is a very good plan to have 
a weigh-hopper follow this machine, especially in country 
mills where wheat is delivered by farmers direct. Farmers 
are generally very careless about cleaning their wheat, in 
fact do not clean it at all in many instances, but haul it to the 
mill right from the threshing machine. It is probable that 
if their wheat were run through a receiving separator before 
being weighed, and they made to stand the loss in weight, 
they would soon learn to be a little more particular in clean- 
ing, and thus save the miller a great deal of loss and trouble. 

After the wheat has passed through a receiving separa- 
tor, it passes either to a bin or to another separator of a sim- 
ilar kind, but constructed to do closer and better work. 
This may be considered the second process, whether it fol- 
lows the receiver immediately or not. By this second pro- 
cess the oats, small weeds, and a portion of the cockle is 
removed; and if one operation does not remove all, it is best 
to have two, or as many as is necessary to make the work 
complete. After this again comes the grader. In grading, 
there should be as many operations as is necessary to abso- 
lutely separate the perfect from the imperfect wheat. It is 
not necessary that the separations or screenings should be an 
entire loss; on the contrary they should be re-cleaned and 
made into lower grades of flour, either alone or by mixing 
with good wheat. It is only for making the best grade of 



56 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

flour tliat the best of the wheat must he used; and for that 
purpose only is it necessary to make such a close and posi- 
tive separation as lias been recommended. The quality and 
reputation of best grade of flour should be kept up, and this 
can only be done by separating the good from the bad wheat 
before grinding. For lower grades the imperfect wheat can 
be ground alone or re-mixed with good, as occasion may 
require. 

Following the grader comes the smutter. In the past 
few years there has been serious questions raised as to the 
value of a smutter as generally constructed. It is maintained 
in some localities that a smutter is too severe on the wheat, 
and ought not, therefore, be used. This theory, however, 
flnds its advocates chiefly in localities where the wheat 
grows very perfectly, and free from smut and other impuri- 
ties. Under such circumstances the smutter can be dispensed 
with and milder methods of scouring only resorted to. In 
all other cases, however, and they are by far the more nu- 
merous, a mild scouring iron or other smutter should be 
used. 

After the smutting process the wheat should undergo a 
polishing operation. What are called brush machines are 
chiefly used for this purpose. There probably cannot be too 
much polishing or brushing done, provided the machines 
are as the}" should be, and do not in any manner break or 
damage the wheat berry. The wheat should be rubbed or 
polished until it is clean, for the reason that the kind of ma- 
terial taken ott" by this process is just such that, if ground 
down with the wheat and into the flour, remains with the 
flour ever afterward. Bolting will not separate it. It may 
be removed to some extent from the middlings by purifying, 
but never from the flour. 

The order of arrangement for cleaning machinery would 
be : first, to have the receiving separator in any convenient 
locality where it can be got at easily to keep it free from 
sticks, straws, and other rubbish that is liable to clog the 
screens and chambers. This should l>e done in a buildiuii' 



LOCATION OF CLEANING MACHINES, 57 

separate and apart from the mill, when possible. In fact, all 
of the cleaning is now freqnently cione, in the best mills, 
-either in a separate building or in a part of the mill build- 
ing fitted up and provided for the purpose. When the rough 
material has been removed from the wheat by receiving- 
separator, the location of the succeeding finer grade separa- 
tor is not so arbitrarily fixed as is the case where there is but 
one separator used in a mill, and that a fine one. It should 
be set on the stone floor, M^here it can be seen at all times, 
and where the sieves can be kept free without extra trouble. 
This of course can only be done with suction machines ; 
blast machines make too much dust and dirt. But, as stated, 
when the wheat has been put in good shape with a receiving 
separator, the second machine can, and ought to be, placed 
in the top story of the mill, and immediately under it the 
grader, so that the stream of wheat may pass from one to the 
other. Under the grader should be the smutter, and under 
the smutter the brush machine. This arrangement allows 
the wheat to pass in one continuous stream from one ma- 
chine to the other without re-elevating. Of course but one 
of each kind of machine is here included; but if more than 
one of each kind be needed, it is obvious that the same order 
•can be followed, only it may require two runs ; in which case 
the wheat will have to be once re-elevated; oftener if the 
necessities of the case and the number of machines require 
it. After the wheat has passed through all the machines 
and finished, it is again elevated to the top of mill, or high 
enough to deposit it in the stock-hoppers over the burrs, 
ready for grinding. 

"When it is designed to make two or more distinct grades 
•of wheat by one cleaning operation, there must be a grader 
for that purpose, through which the wheat must pass after 
having passed through all the other machines. This should 
be over the stock-hoppers, if possible, so that the different 
grades can be run into different hoppers by spouting. 



ARTICLE IX. 

BOLTING HOW TO CLOTHE THE REELS. 

As has been already strongly impressed upon the mind 
of the reader, bad and imperfect wheat will not make good 
flour no matter how ground or how afterwards treated.. 
Also, it must not bo forgotten, that good wheat may be- 
spoiled in grinding to such an extent that no after treatment 
will save it. But allowing the best of wheat to be used, and 
that ground in the l)est possible manner, it is still possible to 
spoil the ilour and reduce its market value. Bolting the flour- 
is a delicate operation, and recpiires skill and care; and un- 
less the system of bolting be in harmony with the mode of" 
grinding, and both good, the best results cannot l)e obtained.. 
Handling the stones while grinding requires a manipula- 
tion which only long practice can insure. A good grinder- 
can be made l^y actual experience alone. The leading prin- 
ciples to be observed is not to grind too fast nor too low; a 
moderate speed and moderately slow feed, and the stone 
high enough at all times to [)revent crushing into a flne pow- 
der or pulverizing tlie wheat. It matters not whether the 
system of milling be a high or a low system, it must be 
borne in mind that granulation is the naode of reducing that 
produces the best results. This subject has been referred to 
before, and Avill probably be referred to again in this work, 
as the author thinks it should be forcibly impressed upon 
the mind of every miller, or others engaged in the art. 

It is now generally conceded, by those who are in a posi- 
tion to know, that the flrst operation in bolting is to remove- 
the bran. The chop meal as it leaves the stones is run 
through a reel, provided for the purpose, covered with a 



CLOTHING REELS. oO'' 

coarse cloth, say, from Xo. 1 to 000, according to the mode- 
of milling: the higher the grinding the coarser the cloth 
must be. This operation is intended to remove nothing hut 
the coarse bran, which passes off at the tail of the reel,, 
while the iiour, middlings, and fine bran, or shorts, sifts 
through the cloth and is conve3'ed to the head of the first 
flour reel. To simplify the matter, and get as clear a knowl- 
edge as possible of the operation, we will, in imagination, 
perform the work after scalping on two reels, and consider- 
the various combinations of cloth that may be used for the 
purpose. 

We will suppose a half chest of two reels, eighteen feet 
in length. On the first half of the upper reel will be put Xo. 

9 cloth; on the left half ISTo. 10. On the lower reel, first 
half, JSTo. 10, then six feet of Xo. 6, and the remainder, Xo. 1. 
This may be considered a fair outfit for a grist mill, or a mill 
where no special effort is made to do merchant work, or' 
make a high grade of flour. It is assumed that while the 
reel has a full feed, the Xo. 9 cloth on the first reel will bolt 
clear enough, therefore, the product of the 9 cloth can be run 
off into the flour chest; but as the chop nears the tail, ttnd 
the volume becomes less, finer cloth is needed to make it bolt 
clear, and hence the Xo. 10. When th!fe fails to bolt clear 
enough, owing to the decreasing volume of material, the 
product is cut oflF, and instead of running into the flour chest, 
is sent to the head of tlie lower reel; so is, also, the entire 
tail product of the upper reel. All that passes through the 

10 cloth on the lower reel is sent back to the head of the 
upper reel and bolted over, while that which passes through 
the Xo. 6 cloth is called middlings, and is sent to its proper- 
place. The product of the Xo. 1 cloth, in grist mill work, 
which we are now considering, is called ship-stuflf or shorts,, 
and is used only for feed; the tailings of the lower reel goto 
the bran bin. Each reel should have under it two convey- 
ors, one under the (jther, the upper having cut off" slides 
every few inches, as it may sometimes occur that only a part 
of the Xo. 9 cloth can be used for flour, owing to unfavora- 



'60 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

ble conditions. In such cases as much of it as will not do for 
iiour must be cut off, and run off with the return. And, 
again, there may be times when all the No. 9, and all, or 
nearly all, the No. 10 in the upper reel will make flour, in 
which case the slides must be closed to that point. The ob- 
ject in so arranging with double conveyors and slides is to 
enable the miller to handle the flour to suit circumstances 
and conditions ; and in this the miller, if he be not expert in 
his business and a man of good judgment, may often fail. It 
is better to have the returns too rich, than to have the flour 
too poor; so that in watching the returns, watch also the 
flour, as the intention is to get it all in flour ultimately; and 
it is, consequently, better to keep the flour rich and pure by 
returning heavily when needed to keep the reels full. 

There is also another point to be watched. In keeping 
the reels too full it is possible not to get all the flour out un- 
til it passes entirely over the JSTo. 10 and on to the No. 6. 
This must not be allowed, as it is so much of a virtual waste. 
In large mills, or mills large or small where merchant work 
is the object, when the latter difficulty occurs it is best to add 
more cloth. 

Just as good and probably a better plan to clothe a cus- 
tom bolting chest, is to cover the upper part entirely with 
No. 9 cloth, and the lower reel as before stated. This is 
■certainly better when the quantity of cloth is gauged closely 
to the grinding capacity of the stones. Grist mill or custom 
flour does not require to have so high a color, but ought to 
retain all the strength, and will, consequently, bake fairly 
white. And then, too, in custom mills preparation is not 
made for handling and re-handling stutt", consequently it 
must be ground and bolted so as to get the great bulk of the 
flour out the first time; although the middlings product 
,sliould be purified and re-ground, as will be again described 
in this work. This is the chief reason why so much coarser 
cloth is recommended. Of course, when all the cloth on the 
upper reel is No. 9, the cut-offs must be managed, as pre- 
viously described, to suit the condition of things while grind- 
ing, all the points being watched at the same time. 



CLOTHING REELS. 61 

In order to make one move forward, assuming the facili- 
ties to be the same, the cloth on reels should be changed to 
^o. 10 at the head of upper, one-half of its length, and ^o. 
11 extra for the other half; iN'o. 12 one-half length of the 
lower reel, five feet ITo. 6, two feet 'No. 2, and the remainder 
Ko. 00. This combination of cloth reduces the bolting ca- 
pacity of the reels, but greatly enhances the value. The cut- 
ofis and returns are worked substantially as before, and if all 
other things are equal, a very fine quality of flour can thus 
be made. The products of the Nob. 6 and 2 are middlings, 
and may be run together, provided means are not at hand to 
purify them separately; if so, they should be kept separate 
until after being purified, for the reason that a somewhat 
diflferent operation is needed for coarser middlings. They 
need coarser cloth and stronger air currents. But under the 
head of new process the whole operation of purifying mid- 
dlings will be treated. 

In order to obtain still better results, the best probably 
that can be. obtained except where thorough arrangements 
have been made for the highest order of milling, is to clothe 
the upper reel, first third with Xo. 11, double extra; second 
third, No. 12, double extra; last third. No. 13, extra, and 
first half of lower reel with jS^o. 14, extra ; the remainder of 
the lower reel to be as last directed. This last combination 
of cloth will make the flour as clear and as pure as will be 
required under any system of milling here being described. 
It must be remembered, though, that the two reels as last 
clothed will have but little more than half the bolting capac- 
ity of the first. The two reels have been adhered to in or- 
der to more simply illustrate the methods. When greater 
capacity is required, more reels must be added ; Imd while 
the numbers of cloth may be adhered to, the quantity of 
each may be varied to suit the changes. 

In large mills where many reels have to be used, two, 
four, six, or more reels, as the case may be, are used for flour 
and returns alone. For instance, in using six reels for the 
purpose, the four upper may be clothed just alike, or all like 



62 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

the single u[)per that has been described. Into these four 
reels the stream of meal is evenly divided. These four reels 
may all discharge in one conveyor, if so liked, as the product 
is all alike or ought to be. It simpliiies the matter to have 
one conveyor for all. This conveyor is provided with slides 
or cut-oifs as in the previous case, and they are regulated in 
the same way. Following these four first reels, there must 
be two others for returns. These can be clothed their entire 
length with the J^o. 14, extra, named for the lower reel in 
the other case, unless it be deemed advisable to put a num- 
ber finer near the tail. The entire sifted product of the two 
last mentioned reels goes back to the heads of the first four, 
while the tailings go to a bran reel, if the bran has not been 
taken out in the first operation as previously described; the 
bran reel to be covered with coarse cloth, same as the scalp- 
ing reel first mentioned. But whether the bran has been 
taken out or not, the product should go to a coarse reel, not 
finer than No. 1 cloth; coarser, possibly. This will separate 
the fine bran and shorts from the middlings, which must 
then go to a dusting reel ; said reel to be clothed the entire 
length with cloth of the same fineness as the finest used on 
the return reel. More than one dusting reel may be needed, 
but all must be clothed alike, and the stream divided on 
them. The dustings can be used in some of the lower grades 
of fiour. After the middlings have been thoroughly dusted 
they can be purified; or, if a high order of milling is prac- 
ticed,- they should be graded or sized before being purified. 
This is done by passing them through a reel having a num- 
ber of clififerent grades of coarse cloth suited to the size of 
the middlings. Ordinarily, by this mode of milling, a reel 
clothed with IsTos. 6, 4 and 1 would be about right for grad- 
ing the middlings. After grading, the difi'erent kinds 
should' be purified on chfierent machines, otherwise there 
would be no value in grading. The vsystem of bolting here 
described, Avliile it does not embody all of the more modern 
methods, will achieA^e good results; and when a straight 
brand of fiour only is aimed at, will do almost as well as the 
most improved methods. 



'CLOTHING REELS. 



68 



This nietliocl is more universally in use at the present 
time, has been for many years, and likely to be for many 
years to come, to some extent possibly as long as flour is 
made. It nva^j not be the best, and the writer thinks it is 
not the best, but it is simple, easily adopted, and may be 
■■safely enough used when it is not convenient or expedient 
to fit up for the more advanced methods. 




ARTICLE X. 



SPECKY FLOUR HOW EEMEDIED BY PERFECT CONSTRUCTIOlSr 

OF REELS AND BOLTINa CHESTS. 

There are many things that onght to be looked after m 
the construction of a bolting chest that are too frequently 
entirely ignored. The chief aim in building bolting-chests^. 
and making other preparation for manufacturing flour, is to 
be able to make the flour as pure, white, and clear as possi- 
ble. The habits and tastes of the people require this ; and 
while it may be, as is often claimed, that unbolted or par- 
tially bolted flour is healthier and better in every M^ay for 
human food than that which is so thoroughly bolted, still it 
is no part of the miller's business to take that matter inta 
consideration; he is not necessarily a sanitarian, and the 
miller who attempts to run his mill on such supposed sani- 
tary principle will, ere long, find himself without customers 
and without a trade. It is true there are alw^ays some cus- 
tomers who must have, or who think they must have, bran 
flour for their use. The wants of such can of course be sup- 
plied from the most approved mill that may or can be fitted 
up, K a mill be only half arranged for making good flour,, 
it would be an easy matter of course to supply the few com- 
parativel}^ who want partially bolted flour; but it would be 
impossible to meet the demand and requirements of the great 
mass who must have pure flour. Few flour-makers entirely 
ignore this fact. They all recognize the importance of mak- 
ing good flour; but many fail to appreciate the still greater 
importance of aiming to make the best. It is frequently ar- 
gued by careless millers that, while their flour may be a lit- 
tle dark and speclr)^, it is, nevertheless, strong, and will bake 




EUREKA FLOUR PACKER, 



Made by BARNARD & LEAS MFG. COMPANY, Moline, Illinois. 
(See Appendix.) 



TO REMEDY SPECKS IN ELOUR, 65 

up white, and, therefore, it is just as good as anybody's flour. 
This is a mistake ; but such men rarely ever see it. They 
continue to run on year after year, bhndly laboring under 
this fatal delusion, wondering now and then how it is that 
some neighboring miller gets along so well and makes so 
much money, while he barely keeps even, and don't always 
do that. He, of course, attributes it to luck, or to most any- 
thing except the real cause, which is nothing more or less 
than that the lucky neighbor keeps up with the times, makes 
his flour just as pure, white, and clear, as the people de- 
mand ; and if the people should demand a still better flour, 
he loses no time in trying to make it better. Such a flour- 
maker will always have a ready market for his flour, at prof- 
itable prices. 

It is not sufficient to say that flour is good enough, be- 
cause it is generally white and clear. If specks are allowed 
to remain in it the market value is to that extent spoiled. It 
might take a long search with a powerful microscope to find 
a speck in the bread, but it is easily detected in the flour, 
and should, therefore, be kept out. This is one of the points 
that ought to be attended to. In the construction of a chest 
every precaution should be taken to prevent the flour from 
becoming specked in passing through and out of the chest 
after it has been bolted. 

A very easy method of overcoming the difficulty, is to 
make the head of the reel thoroughly round and hang or 
attach it to the ribs, true; or if it cannot be attached truly, 
it can afterwards be dressed true by swinging the reel on a 
pair of trestles and striking a true circle with a scribe awl. 
A nicely adjusted and keen-cutting plane can be used for 
dressing it off" to the circle. This method of doing it is not 
perfect as could be done by a lathe, but in the absence of a 
lathe (and they are generally absent in cases of this kind), 
this is the best mode that can be adopted. After the head 
has been trued up, a circular opening corresponding with it 
must be cut from an exact center, out of the inner head 
lining, and just large enough for the reel-head to revolve in 



66 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

without nibbing. The opening in the reel-head should also 
be made in a true circle, ten or twelve inches in diameter. 
A round tin tube must then be prepared to suit this open- 
ing, and long enough to reach the outer heading into the 
reel, far enough to insure it to feed well. This tube is fas- 
tened securely to the outside heading by a flange about an 
inch deep running all around the tube. A flanged opening 
on top of the tube when in position admits the flour, and to 
this a feed spout is attached. Three or four flights in the 
form of a conveyor must be driven in the reel shaft to assist 
in feeding. 

This device will, probably, be found sufiiciently efli'ective ; 
but if greater security is desired, a circle half an inch thick 
and about two inches wide can be fitted around the reel head 
and fastened to the lining. The head must then be closed 
up entirely, by fastening a solid circle of wood three-fourths 
of an inch thick to the open circle already attached. It is 
thrown out half an inch from the main heading, to make 
sure of clearing the revolving reel-head. To this false lin- 
ing a round tin tube must be fastened, as above described, 
and allowed to run two or three inches into the reel, at the 
same time fitting the circle in the reel-head closety. This 
tube must be about fourteen inches in diameter. Through 
this tube and through the false lining, back to the outside 
heading, must be nicel}^ fitted another tube, or a square box 
will do as well by putting corner strips in the bottom like a 
conveyor-box. This tube must be fitted closely to the outer 
heading, closing in the false lining, and tight every way, with 
a feed opening on top similar to the one first mentioned. If 
this arrangement is made complete, it is scarce^ possible for 
specks to escape. 

Another drawback may seriously interfere with making 
the flour as pure and clear as it ought to be when every pre- 
paration has been made for making the best, and that is 
carelessness in constructing or arranging for the slides un- 
der the conveyors. The openings in the bottom of conveyor 
are usually made in the center, and only about three or four 



^ TO REMEDY SPECKS IN FLOUR. 67 

inches square, as the case may be. This should not be done, 
because there is a great habiUty to carry past the point 
where the meal is intended to be discharged, and if the con- 
veyor runs very full it is almost sure to do it. Thus, for in- 
stance, the upper conveyor is supposed to carry everj'thing 
in the direction of the head. The miller finding his flour too 
poor beyond a given point draws a slide to drop it in the re- 
turn conveyor below; but, instead of it all discharging here, 
as is intended, a portion of it is carried over and becomes 
mixed with the flour and deteriorating it to that extent. The 
discharge openings in a conveyor should be either cut en- 
tirely across or else on the carrying side, running back to the 
opposite corner strip. The slides should be made to draw 
away from the carr^dng side, lest they might not at all times 
be drawn far enough, in which case the flour would carry 
over on the end of slides. 

Another annoyance is frequently experienced in working 
with a bolting chest. It often occurs that the hoppering is 
made too flat, and, as a consec^uence, the flour sticks and 
adheres to such an extent as to keep the miller constantly 
pounding to get the flour down into the conveyor. This 
matter should be well provided for b}^ making the hopper- 
ing boards very smooth, as smooth as can possibly be made, 
and then by getting them in at such an angle as to make it 
impossible for the flour to stick to any great extent. The 
hoppering in a flour bolting chest should never have less 
than an angle of sixty degrees, and it should have more when 
it can be obtained. 

It is a frequent practice, in small mills especially, to drop 
the returns from the upper reels through the conveyor down 
on the lower reel. This should not be done. Instead, a 
slide should be made above the reel to guide it over to one 
side or the other of the reel. It should be run to the back 
side in half chests, or to the center between the reels in whole 
chests. All the reels in any sized chest should run in the 
same direction, that is, all pitch one way. It is much easier 
to keep out the specks in that wa^^ 



ARTICLE XL 



THE ELEVATOR HOAV IT DISCHARGES MODE OF CON- 
STRUCTION SPOUTS SOME INSTRUCTIONS 

FOR PUTTING THEM UP. 



Years ago, in the early history of the present epoch in 
milling, and clown even to a comparatively recent period, it- 
was customary in building a stand of elevators, to plant the- 
foot, or boot, at one side of the mill-building in the basement,. 
and land the head on the opposite side in the top of milL 
Or, no matter in what direction run, about that much slant 
or pitch was deemed necessary, in order to have it discharge 
properly; and no doubt it was, owing to the slow motion 
given them. The slow motion, however, did not determine 
the pitch, but rather the pitch determined the speed. Li the 
absence of positive knowledge in reference to the matter, it 
now seems fair to assume that, under all circumstances and 
at any speed, the millwrights of those days believed a stand 
of elevators must have a given amount of pitch forward in 
order to discharge. When a stand of elevators pitch for- 
w^ard to any great extent, the belt drags heavily in the up 
leg; hence the importance of running slow to save wear and 
tear on the belt. So many feet per minute was evidently 
the w^ay it was reckoned, and the number of feet was made 
as few as possible to save the belt; and hence the antiquated 
idea still in vogue among many millwrights, that the way to 
reckon the speed of an elevator is by the number of feet the 
belt should travel per minute. There was some logic in the 
method of our forefather millwrights reckoning by the num- 
ber of feet_^traveled, because their elevators would discharge 
fairly well at any reasonable speed, from ten revolutions up; 



SPEED OF ELEYATOKS. 69 

•and so long as the elevator had capacity, the slower it ran 
the better for the belt. But elevators as now generally put 
Rip, that is, perpendicularl}', will not discharge at any speed, 
nor is there any material wear on the belt by reason of fric- 
tion or rubbino; on the leo-s of the elevator. 

A more illogical method of determining the speed of an 
•elevator as now constructed could not well be deAT.sed than 
by the number of feet the belt should travel per minute. If 
it were logical and mechanical, there should be some uni- 
formit}^ in the matter; but there is none. The millwright 
who confines himself to ordinary mill work onl}^, and uses 
pulleys ranging from twenty to twenty-four inches in diame- 
ter, fixes his speed at from about two hundred to two hun- 
dred and twenty-five feet per minute, which gives a speed to 
the elevator pulley of from thirty-five to forty revolutions, 
according to the variations in the number of feet. Some 
will insist on a few more feet, and some a few less ; but the 
■speed obtained, thirty-five to forty, is very good, and about 
what it should be. But the millwright who builds large 
grain elevators, and uses pulleys four and five feet in diame- 
ter, has a different speed for his belt. He runs his belt 
.about twice as fast as the mill-builcler, and, consequently, 
gives his pulley about the same speed as the other, and, of 
course, is about right. Both give their pulleys about the 
-same number of revolutions, but vary widely in the number 
of feet their belts travel. 

To illustrate the beauty of this mode of reckoning the 
:speed of elevation, we will suppose a young millwright, not 
very well posted about speeds, who is about to put up a 
stand of elevators, using a twenty-inch pulley. He goes to 
one of those millwrights, accustomed to use large pulleys 
only in his business, for advice about the number of feet the 
belt ought to travel. Of course, he will give him the speed 
to which he is accustomed, say, four hundred and fifty feet. 
The young man bases his calculations on that speed, and 
runs his pulley about eighty-five revolutions. Well, if he 
were elevatino- hard o-rain, wheat or corn for instance, he 



70 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

might get along at tliat speed, but would, probably have ta 
line his elevator head with sheet iron to keep it from cutting- 
out too rapidly, as it would have to constantly undergo a. 
terrible threshing from the very forcibly discharged grain. 
If, on the contrary, he were elevating chops from the burrs,, 
or some similar substance, he probably would find the most 
of it going down the elevator again, unless the cups were- 
well constructed with the view of a rapid discharge ; and 
even then much of it would be likely to go back. So much 
for the beauty of reckoning the speed of elevators by the 
number of feet the belt should travel. 

But for one well-known mechanical force, a perpendicu- 
lar elevator could not be made to discharge. All elevators- 
would have to be built slanting, or with a strong pitch for- 
ward, as was done years ago, before the true method was. 
recognized and put in practice. By centrifugal force only 
can a perpendicular stand of elevators be made to discharge ; 
and in determining the speed of elevators the laws control- 
ing the discharging force must be recognized. The first law 
says that the centrifugal force generated by difterent sizes of 
pulleys, all making the same number of revolutions per min- 
ute, is in proportion to the size of the pulleys. Thus, a four- 
foot pulley revolving thirty-five times per minute, would 
generate twice the force of a twenty-four inch pulley, mak- 
ing the same number of revolutions; and it would need 
just twice the force, as it would have twice the distance to 
throw its load; and hence the reason why all classes of mill- 
wrights have their pulleys making about the same number of 
revolutions, although differing widely in the number of feet 
they run their belts. They recognize and obey the behests, 
of the law without knowing it. The law says that whatever 
number of revolutions is necessary to make a twenty-inch 
pulley discharge properly, the same is necessary for a sixty- 
inch pulley ; and they all give their pulleys about the same 
speed, but they arrive at it by reckoning from the number 
of feet the belt should travel per minute; rather a round- 
about way, to say the least. 



SPEED OF ELEVATORS. 71 

Tlie second law says that the centrifugal force generated 
by a given sized pulley running at different speeds, is in pro- 
portion to the square of its velocity. Thus, a twenty-inch 
pulley making seventy revolutions would have four times 
the force of the same sized pulley, making thirty-five revolu- 
tions ; and hence the reason of the difficulty the young man 
would get into by making his elevator run eighty-five ; it 
would have six times the force, nearl}", that it would if he 
ran it but thirty-five; and hence, also, the difficulty that 
would be experienced by running the elevator too slow. If 
a twenty-inch pulley were to run one-half the speed last 
named, or seventeen and one-half revolutions per minute, it 
would have but one-fourth the force of a pulley making 
thirty-five, which would be insufficient to discharge it ; in- 
stead, it would roll over with the pulley, and back down the 
leg. 

The third law, which is merely confirmatory of the 
others, says the forces generated by different sizes of ])u\- 
leys making different revolutions, are to each other as the 
number of revolutions multiplied by the diameterof the pul- 
ley. We find by taking the number of feet to the min- 
ute theory, that a belt traveling two hundred feet will make 
a sixty-inch pullej^ revolve twelve and three-fourths times, 
nearly, (12.7326), while it will make a twenty-inch pulley re- 
volve a little more than thirty-eight and nineteen-hundredths 
times, (38.197), which makes the centrifugal force of the two 
just equal, as will be found by multiplying each speed by its 
own pulley. This would give the sixty-inch pullej'^ exactly 
the same force, and no more than the twenty-inch pulley, 
with about three times the distance to discharge. This is 
manifestly insufficient, and needs no additional argument to 
refute it. The material would necessarily fall back down 
the elevator, as the action of gravitation would overcome the 
centrifugal force, and pull it downward long before it 
reached the point designed, or the discharge spout. 

In elevators running from thirty-five to forty revolutions, 
material leaves the pulley on a tangent, about forty-five de- 



72 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

grees from the top center; and would, of course, keep on in 
a straight line, (not a horizontal line), except for the action 
of gravitation, which disturbs its course, curves it down- 
ward, and lands it in the discharge spout as intended. The 
pulley can run slower than thirty-five revolutions, and there 
would be no perceptible difference in the result unless very 
much slower, when, of course, it would not work well, or 
not at all. But for grain esj^ecially, a much greater speed 
than forty can be worked very successfully. The writer 
once put up three stands of elevators, and ran them seventy 
revolutions, using a twenty-four inch pulley. It was done 
rather more from necessity, or expediency, than choice. An 
eleven-inch cup was used, and the quantity raised was fifteen . 
hundred bushels per hour, which taxed them to their 
utmost capacity. The grain began to leave the cups imme- 
diately after passing, the top center, and with such force that 
it would probably have gone a distance of ten or twelve feet 
if there had been no obstacle ; but owing to the buckets be- 
ing so full it scattered greatly, and a great deal of it dropped 
back down the leg. They, however, did their work, and are 
still doino; it at this writino-. 

While under the same circumstance I would do the same 
thing again, still I would not advise any such speed. Forty- 
five revolutions should not be much exceeded for any pur- 
pose ; not that a greater speed can not be made to work; 
but the force, and consequent wear and tear is unnecessarily 
great. The from thirty-five to forty rate of speed should be 
adhered to, ordinarily. Meal, or other material of less spe- 
cific gravity than grain, will not stand as high a rate of 
speed, as it cannot get out of the way quick enough, and is 
liable to be carried back down; hence, for such, the stand- 
ard speeds should be adhered to more closely. Sharp, puri- 
fied middlings may be considered an exception. They are 
very heavy, and can be handled almost as easily as wheat. 

The one chief lesson this chapter is intended to convey, 
and the one to be remembered is, that the speed of an eleva- 
tor has nothing to do with the travel of the belt in feet per 



CONSTRUCTION OF ELEVATORS. 73 

minute. A good speed for all elevators, with any size of 
pulley, is from thirty-five to forty revolutions per minute; 
hut there may he a moderate variation from these figures 
-either way, with good results. 

It is true in these calculations no account is taken of the 
space between pulley and mouth of discharge spout, that is, 
the width of the leg; consequently, if in a case of necessity, 
a very small (say a six-inch) pulley would have to he used, 
greater speed would he necessary to throw over the mouth 
of elevator leg, as it would probably be nearly as great 
as that of an eighteen-inch pulley elevator. A much high- 
•er rate of speed in so small a pulley would not be objec- 
tionable, as the force would not be great enough to do any 
harm ; but in no case where it is possible to avoid it should 
extremely small pulleys be used. 

There is nothing mysterious in the mode of constructing 
a, stand of elevators; on the contrary, the whole operation is 
rather simple. The boot is usually made independent of the 
balance. A good plan for making a boot is to make the 
lower half octagonal in form inside, two of the squares to be 
formed by slides that draw entirely out, thus opening the 
boot throuo;h and throuo-h in case of a choke or other difli- 
culty when necessary to get inside. Just above the slides 
running across the boot come the bridge-trees. These must 
be of hard wood, sugar maple or something similar. These 
pieces should be about three inches deep and two to two and 
xDne-half inches wide. These bridge-trees, as well as the side- 
boards forming the two sides of the boot, must be notched 
or grooved into the piece that forms the outside board, front 
and back, of the legs of the elevator. This groove should 
be about a quarter-inch deep, and in width to correspond 
with thickness of stuft' used. Corresponding grooves must 
be cut for the slides spoken of. The end boards, those men- 
tioned as forming the front and back of elevator legs, should 
be dressed out the full width of the upper half of boot, out to 
out; then the thickness of the sides, measuring where they 
are grooved, must be cut out of the end pieces below the top 



74 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

of boot. For instance, the boards forming tlie upper half of 
the boot are seven-eighths of an inch thick; one-quarter 
taken out for grooves leaves five-eighths. Then commenc- 
ing six or eight inches below the upper end of end-boards, 
(that amount ought to extend above the body of boot to at- 
tach the legs to) and cut or rip three-eighths of an inch off 
of both edges, shouldering neatly where the cut stops, as the 
operator will, by intuition, commence to rip at the extreme 
end, and end at the point we have mentioned for commenc-^ 
ing. The sides of lower half of boot should be heavier than 
the upper, that is, when but seven-eighths stuff is used for 
the upper, the lower half should then be at least one and a, 
quarter inches in thickness. The side pieces, including- 
bridge-trees, should extend over about two inches at each,, 
or four inches longer than the body of the boot. The 
boards can be fastened by common screws; the bridge-trees, 
should be bolted through outside and against the end pieces. 
The width of boot in the clear should be a half inch greater 
than the pulley. A short shaft should be fitted in the pul- 
ley with length between shoulder one-half inch more than 
width of pulley, and journals, turned on both ends, long 
enough to suit the width of bridge-trees, and not less than 
one and a half inches in diameter; larger with larger eleva- 
tors. Great care must be taken in adjusting bridge-trees- 
and bearings to have the pulley hang true and its sides par- 
allel with sides of boot. 

The boards forming the sides of the elevator legs go be- 
tween the front and back pieces, and are, or ought to be,, 
fastened together with screws. All the butt joints should 
be made to fit together snugly; and when the elevators are 
large, tongue pieces made of hoop iron, can be used in con- 
necting the butts. This prevents the ends from warping and 
getting out of place. This mode of closing in the top will 
suggest itself. The back board of back leg should run to the 
extreme height, while the front piece can run a few inches, 
above the bottom of pulley. The side-boards can be fas- 
tened to these projections, which will make the head the: 



SPOUTING. 75- 

thickness of the stuff wider than the balance of elevation. 
The front end of head should extend far enough to allow of 
a free discharge, say six to eight inches in the clear beyond 
the leg of elevator, for the ordinary sized elevators, such as 
are mostly used in mills. 

Some millwrights make octagonal-shaped portable heads 
in two halves. When these are used, the legs are cut oif' 
square below the pulley, far enough to give sufficient clear- 
ance, and a table piece fastened to them. On this table the 
portable head is set, and cleated around to hold it in posi- 
tion. The head is divided in the center perpendicularly.. 
This is a very good plan, and somewhat less troublesome 
than the other. 

The legs of elevator should be in the clear three-fourths 
of an inch wider than the belt, and the belt should be three- 
fourths of an inch wider than the buckets. The other way 
there should be from one to one and a half inches clearance. 

Ordinary elevators using from three to six-inch cups can 
vary in the size of pulley from sixteen to twenty-two inches- 
in diameter, according to notion and convenience. Pulleys 
too small are objectionable; so also are pulleys too large. 
The top pulley must be the driving pulley. 

The point of discharge is a matter that often has to be 
determined by circumstances. Ordinarily, the discharge 
spout is supposed to start at or near the bottom of the pulley. 
This is the safest, but it sometimes happens that owing to a 
lack of fall, the point has to be raised up nearer the center; 
and with properly made cups, and all other things favora-. 
ble, an elevator can be made to discharge a few inches be- 
low the horizontal center, say, from four to six inches, ac- 
cording to size of pulley. But too near an approach to the 
center should not be attempted except when it can not be 
avoided. 

Spouting is one of the most difficult jobs attempted by 
the inexperienced hand; nor can there much be here told 
that will help him in the matter. Skill and speed in putting 
up spouts can only be obtained by practice, and not always. 



V6 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

then. A few general directions, however, may materially 
assist. 

Great care slioulcl be taken not to get the spout too 
"flat;" and, too, for hard grain it should not be made too 
^' steep." Spouts for chops, fine flour, dustings, and such 
like, should have an angle at no time less than forty-five; 
always more when it can be obtained, and with the bottoms 
very smooth. Purified middlings do not need any more 
than forty-five, and will run very readily at thirty-five; any 
^ngle between thirty-five and forty-five will answer for mid- 
dlings. Hard grain, or grain of almost any kind, does not 
need more than twenty-two and a half, and will run readily 
^t sixteen and a half. Whenever necessary to run a spout 
very "flat," and there is any uncertaint}^ about it working, 
it is best to fix a board at the greatest angle that can be ob- 
tained, and try some of the material intended to be spouted. 
If it refuses to run it will be useless to put up the spout. A 
change of some kind will have to be made so as to get a 
greater angle. All flat-bottomed, wooden spouts should be 
level crosswise, so that the meal, or whatever else, will 
spread evenly over the surface, and not run down in a cor- 
ner. In a spout running through from floor to floor, mth 
the direction changing on each floor, no attempt should be 
made to run the bottoms even with each other; on the con- 
trary each section should be run independent of the other, 
with the bottoms level across. Where the sections are con- 
nected together, there should be a table-like division, con- 
. eisting of a piece of board eight, ten, or twelve inches square, 
according to the size of spout. In the center of this piece a 
round hole should be cut, equal in area to size of spout in 
clear. This piece should be fastened by screws to the lower 
end of the section of spout already up. To this table the 
next section can be fitted and fastened. This method of con- 
necting spouts changing direction is simple, eff'ective, and 
^aves lots of time and trouble. The table should be at least 
an inch larger all around than the spout; more may at times 
be necessary. A spout running continuously in the same 



SPOUTING. 77 

direction, whether all the sections hav^e the same angle or not,, 
need not be so connected. They can be easily and nicely 
fitted together without any intervening table or connecting 
joint of any kind. 

Spouts should never be made too small. Plent}^ of room 
is what is needed for stuff which moves sluggishly : it is not 
so liable to clog and stick. This should be remembered, 
especially if the spout runs " flat." Where there is plenty 
of fall it does not matter so much. 

Round or round-bottomed spouts work freer than flat 
spouts; and sometimes a round tin spout can be made to 
work where flat-bottomed spouts fail ; but whether round or 
flat, the bottom surface should be made as smooth as possi- 
ble. All very flat wooden spouts should be lined either with 
tin, smooth sheet iron, or something else equally smooth 
and durable. Spouts intended for grain should be lined with 
heavy sheet-iron to prevent the wear. The moving grain 
wears wood very rapidly, and the faster it moves, the more 
rapid the wear; hence the reason why grain spouts should 
not have too much pitch or too great an angle. 

By paying a little attention to the foregoing observa- 
tions, and working carefully, little difl&culty need be appre- 
hended in getting spouts of any kind and for every purpose 
in well, and working well. 



ARTICLE XII. 



SHAFTING HOW IT SHOULD BE PUT UP. 

Badly put up shafting is one of tlie evils not only of flour 
mills, but of all other kinds of mills. Shafting should be 
very straight and true in every way; exactly level and in per- 
fect line ; and unless it is so it will run badly, while at the 
•same time consuming more or less of unnecessary power. 
Heavy shafts, like the main line in a flour mill, or crank 
shafts leading directl}^ from the engine, should be well and 
.strongly supported. If a very long line, or whether very 
long or not, the best supports are stone piers surmounted by 
heavy iron pedestals or journal boxes; but stout wooden 
posts, or frames made of two posts and bridge-tree, answer 
the purpose well. Such shafts must run in brass or babbit- 
metal boxes. It is not unfrequently the custom in belt- 
geared mills to run the main driving shaft in this manner ; 
^nd it is really the best when quick-motion engines are used, 
which, we are glad to say, is becoming quite common now. 
(A short stroke and quick motion is always best for flour 
mill purposes.) The center of the main line should be a 
reasonable distance from the centers of spindles, not much 
less than twelve feet. . A reel belt, such as has to be used in 
this case, needs a greater distance between centers than an 
•open belt; though in neither case should the centers be too 
close together. The greater the distance, within reason, 
between the centers of two shafts connected by belt, the bet- 
ter. The belt will not require to be so taut, and, conse- 
quently, produces less strain on the machinery. 

When the main line runs through the husk-frame, as is 
the case when the burrs are run by bevel gear, the husk- 



SHAFTIXG. 79 

frame, or foundation supports for the same, are all that is 
needed to support the shaft. The same is true when spur 
^ear is used, when the burrs are all in a single line. If there 
be more than two pairs of burrs, so must there be more than 
one main upright, as it requires a large master-wheel and an 
upright for each two pairs of stone. The most common 
practice in the past has been, where spur gearing was used 
to drive the burrs, to place them in a nest around the mas- 
ter-wheel, driving four or five, or even more, with one 
wheel. This practice, however, is rapidly growing out of 
favor, and will, we think, soon be entirelj" unknown in this 
■country, as we are not now aware of any new mills l^eing 
Ibuilt on that plan. 

What is generally known as the main upright in the mill, 
or the upright shaft that runs from basement to garret, re- 
quires to be looked carefully after in order to get it exactly 
plumb, or perpendicular, in every way. Unless it is so, it is 
an abominable nuisance ; and is in reality a great nuisance 
anyhow, in the opinion of the writer. The main upright, 
running as it usually does, quite slow, ma^j run either in 
wood or metal bearings, according to the taste or notion of 
those interested. A close-grained wood, not too hard, as 
soft maple, makes a very good journal-box. When a metal 
box is desired, and it is either not convenient, or considered 
too expensive to procure iron journal boxes, wooden boxes 
can be made in the usual "svay, and afterwards cut out about 
a quarter of an inch in depth all around the shaft. There 
should be about the same amount of margin left at both 
edges of both cap and box; that is, there should be about a 
quarter of an inch left untouched that fits the shaft at both 
sides of the box. This will assist in holding the metal in 
place, both while pouring and after. There should also be 
a few shallow, small auger-holes bored at intervals around 
the box, where it has been cut out for the metal ; these need 
not be more than one-quarter of an inch in depth. After all 
is ready, the box should be laid down on the floor, or other 
convenient place, and a section of the shaft laid in it. A lit- 



80 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

tie moist clay, or other similar substance, should be plas- 
tered around the shaft and against the wood as a precau- 
tionary measure to prevent the possibility of any of the 
melted metal leaking out. When all is completed the metal 
can be poured from the top; after which the cap can be 
treated in the same way, and so, also, can as many others a& 
will be required. There are many shafts in a mill that can 
be accommodated with such boxes to a good advantage. 

In preparing to put up a line of shafting, the extreme 
points most be established. The starting point must be lev- 
eled from in order to get the level of the other extreme. 
The leveling must be done with great care. Then a strongs 
fine line must be stretched from extreme to extreme, tight 
enought to prevent any swagging. To this line must be ad- 
justed all the journal boxes, after which the shaft can be 
placed in position ready to run. But in no case should a 
line of shafting, or any part of it, be placed in the bearings 
until they are all right, as it is a very difiicult task to either 
level or line a shaft correctly after placing it in position. 
The same rule of conduct for putting up a horizontal shaft 
must be observed in placing an upright. The extreme 
points must be established by plumbing, and then a fine 
taut line must be stretched to which the bearings are to be 
adjusted. 

All main lines of horizontal shafting are supposed to be 
parallel with the building. All counter lines running in the 
same direction must be parallel with the main line. When 
building new mills it is best to lay the center lines of shaft- 
ing oflfon the floors. This can readily be done before other 
machinery is placed and the extremes preserved even after 
the other machinery has been permanently located. Shafts 
running in any direction can be marked on the floor. To 
establish a counter line, running at right angles with the 
main line, it is best to ascertain the center of the counter, 
and mark it on the main line; then space off" on either side 
of it a distance of two, three, or more feet, according to cir- 
cumstances. A strip or sweep, ten feet or so in length, can 




VICTOR SMUTTER AND SEPARATOR COMBINED. 



Made by BARNARD & LEAS MFG. CO., Moline, III. 

( See Appendix. ) 



SHAFTING. 81 

then be used by boring a hole in each end mth a small gim- 
let. One end of the sweep must then be fastened at one of 
the points made on the main line. This is done by boring 
the gimlet into the floor, leaving the sweep to smng freely, 
the gimlet acting as a pivot. In the other end of the sweep 
a scribe-awl must be inserted wdth which an arc of a circle 
must be described. The gimlet must then be taken out of 
the floor and that end of the sweep carried over to the other 
point on the main line and secured Avith the gimlet as before. 
Then, by using the sweep as in the first case, it will be found 
that the first arc mil be bisected. This is the object sought 
for. A straight-edge may then be used by laying so that its 
edge will strike the center point first made on the main line, 
and at the point where the two arcs bisect each other. A 
line drawn along this straight-edge thus arranged will be 
exactly at right angles Avith the main line. A much shorter 
method is to use the common iron square, but is not so sure. 
The blades are too short to make it certain. 

After counter right-angle lines have been established in 
the manner described, others running in the same direction, 
and convenient to the first, may be made by measuring in- 
stead of by the process given. It can be done with less 
trouble and will be just as correct. 

There are many points in connection with putting up 
shafting that should not be overlooked. In a new mill es- 
pecially, shafting cannot long be expected to remain where 
it is put. The seasoning and consequent shrinkage of the 
timbers of the mill displaces the shafting in a short time. It 
is sure to get out of level if not out of line. 

It would, perhaps, be Avell to here remind all builders of 
new mills that it is not only well, but very important that 
every floor in the mill should be made crowning or full in 
the center, the bulge or crown increasing as you go up. In 
doing this the judgment of the millwright, or whoever else 
has charge of constructing the building, must be consulted to 
determine what height to run the crown. It will be quite 
evident if the timber used is just out of the river, or it is be- 



82 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

ing used green from the woods, extreme shrinkage will have 
to be provided for, but if on the contrary the timber is al- 
ready half seasoned, there will be proportionately less 
shrinkage. 

The object to be obtained in making the calculation, is 
that after all the shrinkage has taken place the floors should 
all be level. Take, for instance, a iive-story mill above the 
basement, we will allow the combined shrinkage of the post 
caps, girders and joist to be one inch for each story. This 
would make the first floor a concave of one inch onl}' in 
depth, not very much and scarcely perceptible in a large 
floor, but the upper floor, which is liable to contain a great 
deal of machinery, would have five inches. That is entirely ' 
too much for either beauty or convenience. It is true that 
the mill floors can be shored up and leveled after they have 
settled by shrinkage, but it is quite a job to do it. It is much 
better to let it level, or do its own leveling, by natural pro- 
cesses, and so arrange the machinery as to make it easy to 
keep it leveled up as the floors shrink away from it. 

In putting up the shafting these facts should be borne in 
mind. It must also be remembered that whether the floors 
have been made crowning or not, the shrinkage will be the 
same, and that in a little while the shaft will be out of level. 

When upright posts are used, as is frequently the case in 
flour mills, to support the shaft, they should be secured A^uth 
keys, top and bottom, the bottom keys to level up with and 
the top keys to tighten with. By this kind of an arrange- 
ment the miller, or anyone else in charge, when he finds his 
shaft getting out of level can loosen the top keys, place his 
spirit-level on the shaft and drive up the bottom keys until it 
is right, tighten up the upper keys and go ahead again. 

After the shaft has been leveled as often as the keys first 
provided will allow, the posts will have to be dropped back 
to their original place, and the shaft readjusted to the posts, 
when it will be again ready for another series of leveling up. 
The same rule should be observed in hanging shafting. 

If wooden hangers are used, the bridgetrees should be so 



SHAFTING. 83 

secured with keys above and below, so as to allow of its be- 
ing raised or lowered in leveling tlie shaft. 

The same is true when employing iron hangers. They 
should be adjustable. They are much less troublesome and 
it is easier in every way to keep the shaft nicely leveled up. 
ISTo matter what kind of machinery is set up, there ought al- 
ways to be provision made for easy adjustment, more espe- 
cially when located where there is a probability of shrinkage 
or a settling down in any way. And unless such provision 
is made, machinery will have to run most of the time out of 
shape, because, as a rule, millers cannot aiFord to stop offcener 
than once a year for "lining up," and really do not care to 
do it oftener. 




ARTICLE XIII. 



FILLING COG WHEELS. 



How to " fill a wheel " properly, and make it work well 
in every way, is something" that is not so well understood,, 
generally, as it should be. Many professional millwrights 
are ignorant of a correct mode or rule for doing it ; while 
others, who are not millwrights, but who now and then un- 
dertake to do it, are deplorably ignorant of every principle 
connected with it. As an instance in point, the writer was. 
not long since asked some questions about turning off the 
cogs in a wheel by a carpenter who had just been filling 
one. On inquiry as to his mode of operation in filling the 
wheel, the fact was developed that he had shaped and 
dressed his cogs before driving them; there was no pitch 
line struck or spacing done after cogs were driven; all was 
done before. He stated that he had got along very well, 
and made a good job, at least it worked well; but he did not 
know how to turn off the face of the cogs without splitting^ 
them, and so had to dress them off by hand with a plane. 

The incident reminded the author of a little operation of 
his own while an apprentice. My employer sent myself and 
a junior apprentice out to do a job in one direction, while 
he went in another. For boys, we were both fair mechan- 
ics; but I, being the senior, assumed to "boss" the job. 
Among other things we had to do, was to put a gudgeon 
into an old wooden counter shaft, about sixteen inches in 
diameter. That sort of a job I had never at that time done, 
or seen done. This is accounted for b}^ the fact that most of 
our work was at that time confined to paper mills; and such 
jobs in a paper mill were very rare, except for wooden water 



FILLING COG WHEELS. 85 

wheels. However, having full conficlence m my ability, I 
proceeded to gudgeon tlie shaft by first dressing off the end 
of the stick to fit the bands. How I would afterwards have 
succeeded in getting the gudgeon in true I have never yet 
found out; for it so happened that about the time the shaft 
was ready for the bands a journeyman millwright arrived on 
the scene of action, sent to take charge of the job. A criti- 
cal examination of the old shaft on which I had expended 
my time and talent, resulted in it being condemned and a 
new one ordered. This let me out of the scrape very hand- 
somely, but I never forgot the lesson. 

It is a very rare thing for millwrights to have to get cogs 
out in these times, as they can usually be Jbought from the 
manufacturer much cheaper; but when it is to be done, good 
well-seasoned hickory or sugar maple should be selected. If 
in planks, the planks should be ripped into strips the width 
of the cog, allowing a half inch or so as a margin for dress- 
ing and finishing up. The strips must be cut into pieces 
long enough for two cogs, again allowing a margin of, say 
three-fourths of an inch, for each cog (less will do) ; this mar- 
gin to be left on the end of the cogs, to be cut off after the 
cogs have been fitted and dressed. After the pieces have 
been dressed on the edges and one face for convenience, the 
shape of the shank must be determined by fitting strips of 
thin wood, tin, sheet-iron, or anything else that will answer 
the purpose, down through each end of the mortise. If it 
be a spur wheel, the mortise will be parallel ; if a bevel, one 
side will be wider than the other. 

The strips prepared, the cog pieces must be squared or 
marked around for the shoulder. For spur wheels, square 
lines are needed; for bevel wheels, bevel lines. The dis- 
tance from the end of piece to shoulder line must be deter- 
mined by the depth of the rim of the wheel ; to this depth 
miust be added sufiicient length for the keys; from an inch to 
an inch and a half on ordinary sized wheels; for very large 
wheels, about two inches. It is not really necessary to run 
bevel shoulder lines across the face of bevel wheel cogs, as 



86 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

the proper bevel can be obtained on the face of the cog in 
cutting them off after they are driven ; and as square shoul- 
der lines are more easily made than bevel lines, it is just as 
well to make square shoulders on all kinds of cogs. 

After the shoulder lines have been laid, the thickness of 
the shank according to the strips must be marked on the 
edges of the piece from the shoulder to the end. This can 
be done by laying the strips on the piece centrally, and 
marking along the edges of them. The best plan is to pro- 
vide a strip of board two inches wide, and about the length 
of the cog piece; to the edge of this may be nailed, or other- 
wise fastened, a hard-wood strip, the edge of it having the 
same taper as the little pieces fitted in the mortise of the 
wheel. (The mortises in all wheels narrow up in the direc- 
tion of the center so that the shanks of all cogs are tapering.) 
There must be one of these strips at" each end of the piece, 
so that the edges of both shanks can be marked without 
moving the pattern. These hard-wood strips should be v^ade 
enough to lap over both sides of the piece to which they are 
fastened, and in such a shape as to mark both edges of the 
shank, and so adjusted as to bring the shank about the mid- 
dle of the cog-piece, which, by the way, as we should before 
have said, ought to be from a half to three-fourths of an inch 
thicker than the cog is to be when finished. This device, or 
pattern we will call it, must be used against the face of the 
cog that has been dressed ; and when one side of the shanks 
have been marked it can be turned, applied to face of cog as 
before, and the other sides of the shanks marked. The cogs 
can be marked oif more rapidly and more accurately in this 
way than they can by the other, and those obliged to make 
cogs by hand ought to adopt this method. 

After the cogs have been laid out, the piece can be placed' 
in a vice, the shoulders sawed in, and the shank shaped out 
to the lines with a chisel. One thing must not be over- 
looked, and that is, in making arrangements for laying out 
the shank, at least one-sixteenth of an inch must be allowed 
to the neat thickness, so as to have something to dress on 



FILLIXG COG WHEELS. 87 

when fitting the cogs in; otherwise there might be some very 
loose fits. When the shaping of the shank is finished, key- 
slots must be cut. The distance from th% shoulder of the 
cog to the shoulder of the key-slot must be a little less 
than the thickness of the rim of the wheel, so that the key 
when driven in will bear hard on the iron instead of the 
shoulder ; the key should not be allowed to touch the shoul- 
der. The key-slots for a spur wheel must be, say, an eighth 
of an inch deeper, ordinarily, on the upper side of the cog to 
allow draft for the key. For bevel wheels the slots may be 
the same depth through. After everything in the way of 
dressing and shaping of the shank has been completed the 
pieces can be cut in two in the center with a saw, when they 
will be ready for fitting and driving. 

For fitting and dri\Ting, if the wheel cannot be brought 
close to the work-bench and vice, which cannot be done, as 
a rule, except in shops, (most wheels after being placed in 
the mills have to be filled in there, and a very awkward 
place it is to work in generally), a temporary bench and fas- 
tening for holding the cogs while chiseling and planing must 
be ^xed up. This is done by fastening two strips to a piece 
of plank, between which the cogs can lay and be secured 
with a tapering key. The cog is then first tried in the mor- 
tise. The judgment must determine how much to dress off". 
The second time the cog should be forced in a little way wdth 
the hammer, and then backed out again ; the marks that have 
been made by the iron will determine the manner and amount 
of dressing. If a mortise happens to be irregular in shape, 
as it often does, it requires a number of trials to get it right, 
and it should not be left until it is all right, and a good fit in 
every way. A fit should never be made with a hammer, 
but always with the chisel or plane. Hammer fits are liable 
to do mischief; they are liable to break the division between 
mortises, and burr up under the shoulder, and prevent the 
cog from being driven up close. Chisel and plane until sure 
there is no danger of breaking the wheel or burring the cog 
before driving finally home. 



88 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

The mode of fitting the keys is somewhat similar to fit- 
ting the cogs. Tliey are first ripped out of a piank of the 
required thickness. They can have an approximate taper 
only, as it varies frequently, owing to irregularities and other 
causes in the wheel. Each key must be fitted to its own 
place, and let remain there until all are fitted in ; then in 
driving they should be struck with the hammer alternately 
all around the wheel, so as to get them all in about the same 
time, and about equally tight. If not convenient to drive all 
around the wheel at once, they can be driven in sections (the 
space between the arms forming a section). After they have 
all been driven in, the heads can be sawed oif, allowing a 
projection of one and a half inches, or such a matter. 

The next part of the operation is to turn ofl^'and establish 
the pitch line. Before proceeding to turn off, however, the 
interstices between the cogs should be plugged up with pine, 
or any other kind of wood, to prevent splitting off the cogs; 
and, too, before proceeding very far, it is necessary to obtain 
the diameter of the pitch circle, so as to know just how much 
to turn off. To do this, the diameter of the pitch circle on 
the pinion into which the wheel is to gear, must be carefully 
measured in inches and parts thereof; this diameter must be 
multiplied by the number of the cogs in the wheel just filled, 
and the product divided by the number of teeth in the pin- 
ion; the result will be the diameter of the pitch circle re- 
quired for the wheel. The standing rule simply stated is : 
multiply the number of cogs in wheel by the diameter of 
pitch circle on pinion, and divide by the number of teeth in 
pinion. When there are two or more pinions of different 
sizes gearing into one wheel, the diameter of all must be 
measured and an average taken. This, of course, cannot 
occur with a bevel wheel, but often does with large spur 
wheels driving two or more runs of stones. 

Another rule that answers the purpose just as well, and 
the only one that can be used when the pinion is not availa- 
ble, as is the case when a wheel is taken out of a mill and 
sent off to a shop to fill, is to multiply the number of cogs in 



FILLING COG WHEELS. 89 

the wheel hy the known pitch in inches, reduced to thirty- 
seconds as a decimal. Thus, a wheel with two and a quar- 
ter inch pitch, would have seventy-two-thirty-seconds to the 
pitch; this would read, as a decimal, seventy-two-hun- 
dredths. This rule is, perhaps, as correct in practice as the 
other, but the other had best be used when it can. When 
the diameter of pitch circle is obtained, a pair of calipers, if 
available, large enough to span the circle, must be set ex- 
actly to the diameter thus obtained. By trying the wheel 
with the calipers occasionally, the operator will know when 
he has enough turned oiF. If there are no calipers available, 
something must be devised as a substitute. 

The distance from base of tooth to pitch line should be 
about four-sevenths of the length of tooth. In cogging an 
old wheel, however, it is best to let the position of pitch cir- 
cle on pinion determine its place on the wheel. The length 
of a tooth is a little more than five-eighths — sixty-five-hun- 
dredths — of the pitch. Thus, a wheel with two and a quar- 
ter inches pitch would have practically a length of cog of 
one and seven-sixteenths inches. But the length of new 
cogs in old wheels should be determined by length of teeth 
in pinion. The pitch circle may be first put on the wheel 
and then a corresponding circle indicating length of cogs, 
and by which they must be cut off, must be put on in the 
same way, that is, by securing a scribe-awl to the rest so that 
the point of it will strike the cogs in the right place, and 
holding it steadily^ the same as the chisel was held in turn- 
ing it off, while the wheel is being turned slowly around by 
hand. It is assumed that the pitch circle when once on the 
wheel is right, and cannot be disturbed or moved again, 
therefore, in stepping around with the dividers and spacing 
off, the dividers, and not the circle, must be changed until it 
comes out even. The practice is to set the dividers as nearly 
as possible by measurement to the required length of pitch, 
^nd then take as a starting point the middle, or about it, of 
some one cog in the pitch circle, and then step carefully 
from one cog to another, keeping constantly on the line 



90 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

until tlie circuit is completed. It may be the last step will 
fall a little short of the starting point, or it may reach a lit- 
tle beyond it; in either case the dividers must be changed to- 
suit, either by filing the point a little or by re-setting, and 
the operation tried over again ; and it may have to be re- 
peated a number of times before it is right, but it should be 
made right before leaving it. 

After the spacing has been completed, the thickness of 
the cogs should be determined and marked on each cog on 
the pitch circle. The thickness of the cog should be a little 
less than the space between the teeth on pinion. There is a 
great deal of disparity in the thickness of cogs and teeth in 
wheels; some makers have them nearly equal, while others, 
have the wooden cogs in wheel much thicker than the iron 
teeth in pinion ; and there is no doubt but that is the way it 
should be, as the wood is not capable of standing the same 
strain as the iron, and in consequence ought to be thicker 
and heavier. But w^hatever the thickness may be, the divid- 
ers should be set to just one-half of it. Then one point of 
the dividers should be set in the centers made in spacing,, 
while with the other point a mark must be made on pitch 
circle on both sides of the center ; this marks the thickness, 
of cog on pitch line. 

For shaping the cog, a pair of dividers must be set to 
span a distance equal to one pitch, plus one-half thickness of 
a cog; with the dividers working from the center of each 
cog the points of all the cogs can be shaped. The same 
dividers can be used for shaping the base also in a manner 
that will suggest itself to the operator. This arbitrary 
method of forming the teeth or cogs is not theoretically cor- 
rect for all sizes of wheels, but is practically so for any size; 
that is, any sized wheel the cogs of which are dressed accu- 
rately by this rule, will work smoothly and well. In spur- 
wheels the opposite side of the cogs must be laid out in the 
same manner, care being taken to have the starting point 
just right — must start from the same cog; the pitch line be- 
ing the same it is not much trouble to get the point right. 



FILLING COG WHEELS. 91 

After the cogs have been shaped or laid out on both sides of 
the wheel, the ends must be cut offi To get a start, it is^ 
best to back two of the cogs out, saw them off neatly to the 
line and put them back in place ; there will then be room 
enough to work a saw in getting a start on the balance. The 
saw can be started by sawing into the line gradually, but it 
is rather more work and trouble than it is to take two of 
them out. Care should be taken in cutting off these ends 
not to run over the lines; the lines should be left on as- 
guides for planing and smoothing. "NVlien the ends are 
planed off in good shape, face lines must be made across the 
ends of the cogs meeting the curved lines on both edges; the 
cogs are then ready for dressing, which ought to be done 
very carefully in order to insure a good working job. 

There are no square, plumb or parallel lines on the cog& 
in a bevel wheel; all the lines tend to a common center,, 
therefore, in obtaining the inside pitch circle of a bevel wheel 
a line must run from the outside pitch circle in the direction 
of where the centers of the two shafts on which wheel and 
pinion work would cross each other, were it possible to ex- 
tend them to that point. The points can be established on 
a board fixed as a rest and notched out so as to straddle the 
cogs and rim of wheel. By the aid of this and a thin straight- 
edge that will work between the cogs, a line can be drawn 
that will indicate the inside cut-off line. Before this is done, 
however, the inside of the cogs should be turned off' the same 
as the outside was in getting the pitch-circle. Enough should 
be taken off to make the cogs the width desired, then the in- 
side cut-off line can be made, and also the inside pitch-circle 
can be struck according to the directions given. The cogs 
can then be cut off* as before described, and face lines carried 
over the ends, in substantially the same manner; these lines, 
however, instead of being parallel must, like the others, run 
to a common center. The guide-rest put up to obtain the 
other lines should also assist in getting the lines on end of 
cogs. A hard wood strip should be so shaped that when it 
lays on the rest against the end of cogs, its upper edge would 



92 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDISfG. 

point directly to the common center spoken of. The wheel 
must then be turned and adjusted until a line drawn along 
the strip will meet one of the curved lines on the outside of 
the cogs ; the wheel must again be turned until the next 
curved line is reached, and so on until all of the cogs are 
m.arked in this way; after which, taking these lines as a guide, 
the inside of the cog can be shaped with the dividers. It 
would probably be safe to adopt this method in shaping the 
under or opposite side of the spur wheel; there would be less 
liability to get a twist in the cogs. It requires a little more 
knowledge and skill to properly cog a bevel wheel than it 
does a spur wheel; but both require to be laid out and 
dressed carefully, in order to have them work as smoothly 
and noiselessly as they should. When there is not too much 
to be cut off the ends of the cogs, it is better, where it can 
be done, to plug up the interstices all the way across, and 
turn the face of the wheel off. It is a rather difficult job to 
hold the tool in cutting against the end of the hard wood, 
unless the motion is very rapid; but scarcely so tiresome as 
sawing them off. With a very slow motion turning should 
not be attempted. 



ARTICLE XrV. 

WATER WHEELS — STEAM ENGINES. 

Comparatively few water wheels other than turbine wheels 
are now used as motors for flour mills, or, in fact, for any 
other kind of mills using water power; consequently, a very 
few remarks, and those confined to overshot wheels, are about 
all that is needed in this work. 

As to whether an overshot or the best make of turbine 
wheels, will transmit the most power with a given quantity 
of water and the same head and fall, has not as yet been 
fully decided. The manufacturers of turbine wheels of 
course claim the greatest economy in the use of water; they 
claim that more power can be obtained with the same quan- 
tity of water, all other things being equal, by the use of iron 
turbines than can be obtained by the use of the best con- 
structed overshot. There is, however, this difference: the 
turbine wheels have many defenders because there are many 
makers, while the overshot has no defenders, unless, per- 
haps, now and then a conservative individual, who does not 
take up with new-fangled notions very readily. But whether 
or not the turbine wheels give more power than the over- 
shot, certain it is they are rapidly displacing it. But there 
are other causes besides the difference in power that have 
taken an active part in bringing about the change. The 
turbine wheels are less troublesome than the overshot ; they 
do not freeze up in winter time; are durable, occupy less 
room, and do not require so much gearing to get up speed. 
These, and other reasons, are strong arguments in favor of 
turbines, even though parties cannot be convinced that they 
give more power. But some overshot, and other kinds of 



94 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

wooden wheels, (intlie aggregate, a great many), are still in 
use, and. likely to be for some time to come, and for that 
reason we must give brief direction for the construction and 
placing in position of an overshot wheel. 

The mode of making and putting the gudgeons in the 
shaft has already been described; but before setting the 
gudgeons, lines for laying out the arm-mortises should be 
made along the body of the shaft. Ordinarily, as before 
•stated, water wheel shafts are made sixteen square, and there 
are eight sets of arms, so that there is an arm-mortise on 
everv other square. In order to have the arms in line with 
each other and out of wdnd, it is best to divide the end of the 
shaft into eight parts, in the same manner as directed for 
making a conveyor-shaft, only the center, instead of the cor- 
ner of square, must be taken. When both ends are divided, 
a straight-edge the length of shaft'must be laid on the shaft, 
and adjusted to meet the lines on the end; then a fine line 
should be made with a scribe-awl along the straight-edge the 
whole length of the shaft. This must be repeated on every 
other square, or on the squares that are to be mortised. 
These lines form the centers of mortises, which can be laid 
out on both sides according to size. For light wheels running 
from twelve to twenty feet in diameter, and three or four feet 
face, the arms need not be more than three inches thick by 
seven to eight inches wide. The mortises should be very 
carefully laid out, and just as carefully cut, not less than six 
inches in depth, with the bottom smooth and true, so that 
the end of arm will rest solidly on it. The ends of mortises 
should be cut beveling, with the outer end running under, 
so that the outer edge of arm, which is to be cut in a dove- 
tail shape to suit bevel in mortise, will fit it snugly. The 
mortise should be about two inches longer than the arm is 
wide, so as to admit of a heavy key to be driven hard down 
l3ehind the arm to hold it in place. The mortise must be mde 
enough to admit the whole body of arm without any tenon- 
ing; if the arms are three inches thick the mortise must be 
three inches wide. 



WATER WHEELS, 95 

In making the rim, good plank must be selected about 
the thickness the rim is intended to be. A pattern must 
then be made, out of an inch board, the length of one sec- 
tion of rim (a wheel with eight arms will have eight sections), 
and in width equal to depth of rim, allowing something 
for dressing. This is done by the use of a sweep, fastened 
by one end with a gimlet to the floor, the other end to have 
inserted in it a scribe-awl; the distance from gimlet to scribe- 
awd being just equal to half the outside diameter of the 
wheel, allowing a half inch for dressing ofl" in finishing. 
"With the sweep thus fixed, strike a circle on board intended 
for pattern ; then move the scribe-awl in toward the center 
a distance equal to the intended depth of rim, making allow^- 
ance as before for dressing. The inside circle can then be 
struck, after wdiich the piece can be dressed out to the marks 
and cut off the length required. It is then ready for mark- 
ing out the cants or segments of the rim, which is done by 
laying it on the plank and marking around it with a heavy 
lead-pencil or hard red chalk. Where there are no jig-saws 
convenient for cutting the cants out, an ordinary chopping 
axe is the best tool to use. The plank must be raised up on 
timbers or tressles ; then by getting on it, the same as get- 
ting on a log for scoring-in, a skillful workman with the 
chopping axe can cut out the sections very neatly. It can 
also be done with a saw, but it is much harder work and re- 
quires more time to do it. It must not be forgotten in cal- 
culating the length of the cants, to allow for the lap — at 
least eight inches for a square lap. This allow^ance must be 
made on the pattern. 

After everything else is ready, a platform for framing the 
rim may be erected. It is, though, a very common practice 
to build the platform first. The mode of doing this is to 
procure a heavy block of wood (a piece of a round log will 
do), about two feet high. This should be planted on a level 
piece of ground under a shade tree, if there is no shop or 
building that can be used for the purpose. Resting on this 
block, and running out from it in spider-shape, there must 



96 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

be eight pieces of scantling, four by four will do, and tliese 
pieces must be equally spaced. Under tlie outer end of each 
piece must be put (a little in from the end) an upright piece 
to support them. This platform must be perfectly level 
every way, so that when a rim is framed on it there will be 
no twist or wind in it. A ninth piece- of scantling must be 
placed in the center of one of the sections so that a cant, 
when laid on it, will have three supports and lay level while 
it is being laid out and worked. The laps of each cant 
should be marked out ready for cutting before beginning to 
put the frame together; and they can as well all be cut ex- 
cept the last lap ; it must be left until all the others are to- 
gether, when it can be cut to suit and fill its place. The 
laps must be cut at one end out of one side, and at the other 
end out of the opposite side. The lap on the inside of rim 
where the bucket grooves are, must be the heaviest; thus, 
for instance, in cutting out for lap on inside of rim at one 
end of cant, an inch and five-eighths must be cut out; at the 
other end that much must be left standing, cutting out one 
and three-eighths inches instead. Most millwrights frame 
with a square lap, while others make a diamond-shaped lap; 
the latter suits the writer best, probably because he has been 
more accustomed to it. In using a diamond-shaped lap, the 
two outside rims of a water wheel must be framed, one with 
the sun and the other against the sun, so as to have the 
bucket-grooves come square across the shoulder of the lap, 
and not parallel with it as in that case, if a bucket-groove 
were to come too close to the shoulder it would be liable to 
split out and spoil it. 

When the cants have all been made ready, the rim can be 
put together. This is done by starting at the section of 
the platform provided with three supports. The first cant, 
after having the laps neatly dressed, can be laid up, fixed in 
place by the use of the sweep which is fastened at the center 
on a block the thickness of the rim so as to have it about 
level. After the cant has been located, inch holes must be 
bored through the arms of platform on each side of cant, and 




LEFFEL'S WATER WHEEL 



MADE BY JAS. LEFFEL & CO. 

Springfield, Ohio, and 109 Liberty Street, New York. 
^See Appendix. ) 



WATER WHEELS. 97 

about an inch away from it. Into these holes pins must be 
driven, and between pins and cant wedges must be driven to 
hold it in place. As should have been stated before, the 
arms of platform should extend outside of rim about six 
inches, or in other words, the diameter of platform should be 
a foot larger than diameter of rim. After the first cant has 
been fixed and fastened to platform, the next can be fitted to 
it, and it in turn fastened in the same way, and then the next, 
and so on around until the rim is completed. The laps 
should be draw-bored and pinned temporarily as fast as each 
one is fitted together, to hold them in place. 

When all is done and the face of the rim is planed off" 
smooth and true, it is ready for laying out for elbows and 
buckets. What we call elbows are the strips that form the 
bottoms of the buckets. These run in the direction of the 
center and maybe from three to four and a half inches wide, 
according to the depth of rim, and two inches thick. They 
should be about one foot apart, and have an even or equal 
number for each section. A wheel eighteen feet high or in 
diameter, should have either forty-eight or fifty-six buckets. 
The elbow centers should be spaced off" with a pair of divid- 
ers, the same as spacing off a cog-wheel, so arranging as to 
have the lap points come between the elbows. After being- 
spaced off the grooves can be laid out in length and width 
to suit the thickness and breadth of the elbow pieces, and 
about three-fourths of an inch deep. When these are all 
finished, the bucket-groove can be laid on. This must run 
out from the outer edge of elbow at an acute angle to be de- 
termined by the width of the elbows and the depth of the 
rim. The angle of the bucket should be just such as would 
let all the water run out before passing the lower center of 
the wheel when in position, but not too long before, because 
in that case water and power would be wasted. A step 
should be made for laying out the bucket-grooves with the 
inner end about a sixteenth of an inch narrower than the outer 
end. This strip should be preserved and afterwards used 
for marking the ends of the bucket-boards when putting 



98 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

them in. When the elbow and bucket-grooves are all com- 
pleted, the rim must be circled to the true size, inside and 
out, with the sweep. It can then be taken apart and each 
segment dressed to the circle with a foot-adze and circular 
faced plane, after which it can be laid away until the wheel is 
ready to raise. The second rim is made like the first, ex- 
cept the bucket-grooves run the other way. The angle of 
the bucket forms a bevel on one edge of the elbows, and 
also on one edge of the buckets. These bevels should be 
ascertained and made, and the elbows dressed to a width; 
the buckets are to be dressed on the beveled-edge only. 
There should also be facing pieces got out. These should 
be made of full inch to inch and a half stuff, according to 
size of wheel, and can be got out by the pattern used for 
dressing out the cants. 

When all the parts have been got out and everything 
ready, the shaft must be got into position and the wheel 
raised, which is commenced by putting in and fastening the 
arms. After the arms are in and fastened, a circle must be 
struck on them the size of the inside of rim. This can be 
done by fixing a scribe-awl on a rest, holding it against the 
arms while the wheel is being slowly turned around. A 
slot must then be cut down from the end of the arms, on each 
of them, to the circle. The slot must be two inches wide 
and two inches from the face or outside of arm. A groove 
must then be cut across the inside face of cant (if the arm be 
three inches thick) four inches wide, with a draft on one side 
for a key. It should, however, be here remarked that these 
grooves should be cut in the rim before it is taken off" the 
platform where it is framed. They should be midway be- 
tween each section, and so arranged as to just clear the 
outer edge of bucket; this will cause the arm to form one 
side of the elbow-groove. When the arms have been 
slotted, the cants can be placed in position, each one tempo- 
rarily fastened until all are in, when they can be keyed, 
pinned and bolted. There should be, in addition to the 
pins, three bolts in a diamond and four bolts in a square lap; 



WATER WHEELS. 99 

a bolt tliroiigh the slotted part of the arm and rim to clamp 
the two tightly together, and a key fitted along the arm in 
the groove across the face of rim. 

After all this is done the elbows must be put in place 
and the soling put in. The soling is generally made of inch 
and a half stufi', in widths to suit the stuff without ripping, 
and no dressing done on it except to joint and bevel the 
edges. In some instances, where large, heavy wheels are 
made, the soling is dressed out of two inch plank to corres- 
pond with circle of wheel. The method of doing this will 
be found in our remarks on getting out staves. The soling 
is put in the wheel, section at a time, between each set of 
arms. The two outside pieces are first notched around the 
arms halfway; then other pieces are selected or made to fill 
in between, very tight — should be sprung in. 

We forgot to say when the rims of wheel were up, the 
face pieces should be fitted in between the arms, and nailed 
fast to rim. These pieces should also be wide enough to 
cover the ends of the soling. After the soling has all been 
put in and spiked fast, the buckets may be put in. One end 
of the bucket can be cut off" square and the length taken be- 
fore the other end is cut oft'. This should be done with 
every bucket, as there may be some variation in length, ow- 
ing to warp or twist in rims. The strip used for laying out 
bucket-grooves must then be laid against the end of bucket, 
and the bucket marked and dressed accordingly. This can 
be done with a jack-plane, crosswise; the bucket will then 
go in its place tight and snug. When driven home and 
nailed, it must be dressed oft" with axe, adze and plane, even 
with rim of wheel. When putting in the buckets the wheel 
must be turned upwards from you, so as to have a chance to 
fasten the buckets to the elbows either with nails or bolts. 

This sketch is merely an outline general plan for build- 
ing a wheel. Many things may require a modification of 
the plan, but once the general plan is understood, modifica- 
tions, when necessary, will suggest themselves. Thus, for 
instance, where very high and heavy wheels are needed, it 



100 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

may not do to mortise arms in shaft; on tlie contrary, there 
may have to be a lieavy frame made to lock around the 
shaft, and other different arrangements used. 

Forebays are constructed according to circumstances and 
to suit the place. The common plan is to make a series of 
yoke-frames the width and depth the forebay is intended to 
be. These are placed at proper intervals on two or more 
stringer or stream sills, running: back from the wheel and 
supported next the wheel by strong gallows frames, and at 
the other end by mother earth, or walls laid for the purpose. 
The end of stream-sills next the wheel are beveled and set, 
say, two inches away from the wheel. When the yoke 
frames are all fixed they are planked around solidly on the 
inside, and connected with the wing-frame, which either 
Tuns across the end of mill-race or along the side of it. This 
frame should run two feet below the bottom of race and 
eight or ten feet into the bank on both sides of forebay, and 
then puddled or graveled all around to prevent leak. The 
bottom side plank of the wheel-end of forebay must extend 
over and beyond the center of wheel two or three feet, ac- 
cording to size of wheel, and will have to be circled out 
over the center of wheel : these planks form the guide for 
the water. When a wheel has one or more middle rims, 
there will have to be, also, middle guides to correspond. 
Between these guides shute-plank will have to be laid; in 
most instances these are merely a continuation of the bottom 
of the forebay; others, however, lay the bottom first and 
then the sheet-plank on it. When the shute is formed in 
that way the plank must be got out long enough to extend 
back about eighteen inches past or inside of front end of 
forebay, and should be dressed wedge-shape the whole 
length, having the points next the wheel about a half inch 
thick, while the butts should be left the full thickness of two 
inches. A shute made ift this way inclines the course of the 
water downward and more directly into the bucket. The 
wheel end of shute should be just far enough back of the 
center to insure the water to strike the buckets fairly with- 
out running over the wheel. 



WATER WHEELS. 101 

The best kind of gate to use for an overshot wheel is 
what is generally styled a valve gate. When closed it has 
the appearance of a corner strip in a conveyor-box, one edge 
resting on shute-plank and the other against the inside of 
the end of forebay. The upper edge is hinged with strips 
of leather or other material, while near the lower edge a 
staple is driven to w^hich is attached a chain, and that in turn 
to a windlass-like arrangement running across the top of 
forebay. In starting the wheel the gate has to be raised by 
a turn of the windlass ; the pressure of the water will close 
it, and keep it closed when the wheel is not running. 

There are, perhaps, as man}" or more flour mills run by 
steam as by water, but as the millwright never has to build 
the steam engine or have anything, as a rule, to do with 
them, it is entirely unnecessary to have anything in this con- 
nection to say about the steam engine. 




ARTICLE Xy. 



GEAEING TABLES FOR DETERMINING THE REQUIRED PITCH FOR 

DEVELOPING A GIVEN NUMBER OF HORSE POWERS FOR SPUR 

AND BEVEL IRON-TEETH WHEELS RULES FOR THE HORSE 

POWER OF MORTISE, SPUR AND BEVEL WHEELS. 

A careful examination of the field of mechanical litera- 
ture fails to develop any clear, concise or simple method of 
determining how to select a pair of cog wheels of the re- 
quired strength to develop a given amount of power. In 
view of the absence of any such method, the writer thinks 
a table that will enable the millwright or miller to select at 
a glance the wheel he needs, would be very useful in this 
work, and has, therefore, with care, compiled such a table. 

It is true, that calculated tables have existed for many 
years purporting to give the desired information, and so they 
will to the clear-headed mathematical millwright, who has 
the time to study and cipher it out. But as very many of 
our millwrights who are good, practical mechanics, have not 
the mathematical skill to do the necessary ciphering, the 
tables to them at least are useless, while others who have the 
skill, rarely have the time; hence the tables in a large meas- 
ure, fail of their design. The most of the tables used to 
determine the strength of teeth and cogs have been compiled 
from the calculations and works of old English mechanics, 
and, as a rule, more material is needed to meet the require- 
ments of these tables than the necessities of the case de- 
mand. The English mechanics have ever been and are 
yet famous for making ponderous machinery. It is not a bad 
fault, but it is useless to carry it to excess. The tables used 
in this work are intended, to some extent, to correct these 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 103 

faults, and are, therefore, compiled more in harmony with the 
usages and practice of American mechanics. The calcula- 
tions made here are uniform from low to high rate of speed, 
no allowance being made for unusual jar, generally supposed 
to exist in very high motion. 

The principle involved is that a cog wheel making twenty 
revolutions per minute is capable of transmitting just twice 
the power of the same wheel making but ten revolutions per 
minute, all other things being equal, and this principle has 
been adhered to throughout; consequently, there would seem 
to be too great a difference in pitch for low speed and high 
speed, but both are correct. We would, however, owing 
to the more rapid wear of wheels running at a high rate 
of speed, as a matter of economy, recommend somewhat 
heavier wheels, as a rule, than the table calls for, as they 
would not have to be replaced so often. This, however, 
must be left to the judgment of the mechanic, as there is 
no uniform mode of determining the wear of wheels under 
all the various circumstances in which they run. The author 
would never, willingly, use cog wheels running at high rates 
of speed, but use belts instead. 

For flour mill work (for which these tables are prepared 
more especially), the motions are supposed to be smooth, 
whether fast or slow; and where they are not, should be 
made so by the use of springs or otherwise — consequently, 
the table is adapted without change, except to counteract 
rapid wear. But for corn-shelling, driving trip-hammers, or 
for such other purposes, where it is next to impossible to 
control the motion, heavier high-motion wheels than the 
table calls for, ought to be used. 

The first column in each table indicates the number of 
feet the wheels travel per second ; the succeeding columns 
indicate the pitch necessary to develop the horse-power in- 
dicated at the top of columns. To use the table, we will 
say, for instance, it is required to have a wheel transmit 100 
horse-power on a shaft making sixty revolutions per minute ; 
it will be first necessary to determine about what size in 



104 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

diameter the wheel must be. In this case will say a wheel 
about 7 feet in diameter may be used; a wheel 7 feet in 
diameter is 21 feet in circumference, consequently, a 7-foot 
wheel, making 60 revolutions per minute, will have a veloc- 
ity of 21 feet per second. We will now turn to the table 
and to the 21-feet line, and trace it to the 100 horse-power 
column; we there find 2.17 to be the pitch. We will next 
turn to the pattern list or lists, of which every millwright 
should have a supply, find the 2| and the 2J pitch columns, 
and trace them until a wheel about 7 feet in diameter is ob- 
tained. The 2| and 2^ pitch are the nearest to the required 
pitch, but if the wheel cannot be found in them, it must be 
looked for in another pitch column, as near the required as 
can be found. 

It may be, in order to suit room and other speeds, that a 
wheel 5 feet in diameter can be used; then, to ascertain the 
circumference we will multiply the diameter by 3.1416, 
which makes 15.7080 feet, or in practice 16 feet j^er second. 
Turning to this line in the table, we trace as before to the 
100 horse-power column, and find the pitch to be 2.47 inches. 
We then again turn to the 2^ pitch in pattern list and hunt 
for a wheel about 5 feet in diameter. It is a very rare thing 
that a wheel can be found just the size wanted in any pat- 
tern list, consequently, changes have to be made all through 
to get speeds right. The following rule for finding the wheel 
required by table should be committed to memory : 

Rule — First fix the diameter of the wheel to be found 
in feet, then multiply diameter by 3.1416 to get the circum- 
ference ; then by the number of revolutions the shaft makes- 
per minute, and divide the product by 60, which will give 
the velocity of the wheel in feet per second, then proceed to 
find the pitch by tracing from this figure in velocity column 
to the required horse-power column. 

Example — Required, to find the pitch of a cog-wheel to 
transmit 80 horse-power on a shaft making 75 revolutions, 
per minute. 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 105- 



Solution — Say tlie wheel must be 4 feet in diameter, tlien : 

3.1416 
4 



12.5664 
75 

628320 

879648 

60)9424800(15.708 
60 

342 
300 

424 
420 



480 
480 



The 15.708 feet per second, the result obtained, we will 
call 16 feet, it being nearest to that number. From 16 in 
the velocity column we will trace to the 80 horse-power col- 
umn, where will be found 2.23 inches pitch. By referring^ 
to the 2^ pitch column in pattern list, the 4-foot wheel, or as 
near to it as possible, can be found. 

The tables are made for solid iron wheels; the first for 
spur wheels and the other for bevel wheels. To obtain 
the pitch of mortise wheels with wooden cogs running at a 
stated speed and transmitting a given power, the pitch in 
the tables must be multiplied by 1.375, by proceeding in this- 
wise : First fix the diameter of wheel as before directed in 
rule — multiply by 3.1416, and then by the number of revolu- 
tions the shaft makes, and divide by 60 ; the result will be 
the velocity in feet per second. This must be traced from 
the velocity column in table to the required horse-power 
column; the pitch thus found must be multiplied by 1.375,, 
which will give the pitch for the mortise wheel required; 
then turn to mortise wheel column in pattern list, find the- 
pitch and also the wheel. 

Example — Required, the pitch of a spur-mortise wheel 
to transmit 60 horse-power on a shaft revolving 50 times per 
minute. 



106 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



Solution — Say the wheel must be 4| feet in diameter, then : 

3.1416 
4.5 



157080 
125664 

14.13720 

50 

60)706.86000(11.7810 
60 

106 
60 

468 
420 

486 
480 

60 
60 



The result is 11.7810, which means 12 in the velocity col- 
umn. By turning to 12 in that column and tracing it to the 
60 horse-power column, we find 2.22, which we multiply by 
1.375; thus, 

1,375 

2.22 

2750 
2750 
2750 

3.05250 

This gives us a little more than 3 1-20 inches pitch for 
mortise wheel, and we will take the 3, 3^ or 3J pitch column 
in pattern list to find the wheel required. 

To obtain the pitch of a bevel mortise wheel the same rule 
must be observed, but the pitch must be found in the bevel 
wheel table. For spur wheels gearing into two, three or 
more pinions, as is often the case in mills where two or more 
runs of burrs are driven by one wheel, no greater strength of 
■cogs or larger pitch is needed than if but one run of stone is 
'driven, except to save in wear, (the wear is much faster), but 
the arms and rim must be proportionately stronger for driv- 
ing two or more run than for one only. 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 



107 



lEOisT-TEETH SPUE WHEELS. 



H. P. 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


Velocity 

in feet per 

Second. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


2 


"l 


1.4 


1.7 


2 


2.23 


2.44 


2.64 


3 


.81 


1.13 


1.37 


1.62 


1.80 


1.97 


2.13 


4 


.70 


.98 


1.19 


1.40 


1.56 


1.70 


1.84 


5 


.63 


.88 


1.07 


1.26 


1.42 


1.53 


1.66 


6 


.58 


.81 


.98 


1.16 


1.29 


1.41 


1.53 


7 


.53 


.75 


.90 


1.06 


1.18 


1.29 


1.39 


8 


.50 


. .70 


.85 


1 


1.11 


1.22 


1.32 


9 


.47 


.65 


.80 


.94 


1.05 


1.14 


1.24 


10 


.448 


.627 


.76 


.896 


.997 


1.10 


1.18 


11 


.427 


.597 


.725 


.854 


.952 


1.04 


1.12 


12 


.408 


.571 


.693 


.816 


.910 


.995 


1.07 


13 


.893 


.551 


.668 


.786 


.876 


.9.58 


1.03 


14 


.378 


.529 


.642 


.756 


.845 


.922 


.997 


15 


.362 


.506 


.615 


.724 


.817 


.883 


.955 


16 


.353 


.494 


.600 


.706 


.786 


.861 


.931 


17 


.343 


.480 


.583 


.686 


.764 


.836 


.905 


18 


.333 


.466 


.566 


.666 


.736 


.812 


.885 


19 


.324 


.453 


.550 


.648 


.722 


.790 


.855 


20 


.316 


.442 


.537 


.632 


.704 


.771 


.834 


21 


.308 


.431 


.523 


.616 


.686 


.751 


.813 


22 


.300 


.420 


.510 


.600 


.669 


.732 


.792 


23 


.294 


.411 


.499 


.588 


.655 


.717 


.776 


24 


.288 


.403 


.489 


.576 


.642 


.702 


.760 


25 


.283 


.396 


.481 


.566 


.631 


.690 


.747 


26 


.277 


.387 


.470 


.554 


.617 


.675 


.731 


27 


.272 


.380 


.462 


.544 


.606 


.663 


.718 


28 


.267 


.373 


.453 


.534 


.595 


.651 


.704 


29 


.263 


.368 


.447 


.526 


.586 


.641 


.694 


30 


.258 


.361 


.438 


.516 


.575 


.629 


.681 


31 


.254 


.355 


.431 


.508 


.563 


.619 


.670 


32 


.250 


.350 


.425 


.500 


.557 


.610 


.660 


33 


.246 


.344 


.418 


.492 


.548 


.600 


.649 


34 


.242 


.338 


.411 


.484 


.539 


.590 


.638 


35 


.239 


.334 


.406 


.478 


.532 


.583 


.630 


36 


.235 


.329 


.399 


.470 


.524 


.573 


.620 



108 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



IROIT-TEETH SPUR WHEELS. 



H. P. 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


Velocity 
in feet pel- 


Pitcli. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Second. 
















2 


2.82 


3 


3.16 


3.31 


3.46 


3.60 


3.74 


3 


2.28 


2.43 


2.55 


2.68 


2.80 


2.91 


3.02 


4 


1.97 


2.10 


2.21 


2.31 


2.42 


2.52 


2.61 


5 


1.77 


1.89 


1.99 


2.08 


2.17 


2.26 


2.35 


6 


1.63 


1.74 


1.83 


1.91 


2 


2.08 


2.16 


7 


1.49 


1.59 


1.67 


1.75 


1.83 


1.90 


1.98 


8 


1.41 


1.50 


1.58 


1.65 


1.73 


1.80 


1.87 


9 


1.32 


1.41 


1.48 


1.55 


1.62 


1.69 


1.75 


10 


1.26 


1.34 


1.41 


1.48 


1.55 


1.61 


1.67 


11 


1.20 


1.28 


1.34 


1.41 


1.47 


1.53 


1.59 


12 


1.15 


1.22 


1.28 


1.34 


1.41 


1.46 


1.52 


13 


1.10 


1.17 


1.24 


1.30 


1.35 


1.41 


1.46 


14 


1.06 


1.13 


1.19 


1.25 


1.30 


1.36 


1.41 


15 


1.02 


1.08 


1.14 


1.19 


1.25 


1.30 


1.35 


16 


.995 


1.05 


1.11 


1.16 


1.22 


1.27 


1.32 


17 


.967 


1.02 


1.08 


1.13 


1.18 


1.23 


1.28 


18 


.939 


.999 


1.05 


1.10 


1.15 


1.19 


1.24 


19 


.913 


.972 


1.02 


1.07 


1.12 


1.16 


1.21 


20 


.891 


.948 


.998 


1.04 


1.09 


1.13 


1.18 


21 


.868 


.924 


.973 


1.01 


1.06 


1.10 


1.15 


22 


.846 


.900 


.948 


.993 


1.03 


1.08 


1.12 


23 


.829 


.882 


.929 


.972 


1.01 


1.05 


1.09 


24 


.812 


.864 


.910 


.953 


.990 


1.03 


1.07 


25 


.798 


.849 


.894 


.936 


.979 


1.01 


1.05 


26 


.781 


.831 


.875 


.916 


.958 


.997 


1.03 


27 


.767 


.816 


.859 


.900 


.941 


.979 - 


1.01 


28 


.752 


.801 


.843 


.883 


.923 


.961 


.998 


29 


.741 


.789 


.831 


.870 


.909 


.943 


.983 


30 


.727 


.774 


.815 


.853 


.893 


.928 


.964 


31 


.716 


.762 


.802 


.840 


.878 


.910 


.946 


32 


.705 


.750 


.790 


.827 


.865 


.900 


.934 


33 


.693 


.738 


.777 


.814 


.851 


.885 


.920 


34 


.682 


.726 


.764 


.800 


.837 


.871 


.907 


35 


.674 


■ .717 


.755 


.791 


.826 


.860 


.893 


36 


.662 


.705 


.742 


.777 


.813 


.846 


.878 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 



109 



IRO^^-TEETH SPUR WHEELS. 



H. P. 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


Velocity 
















in feet per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Second. 
















2 


3.87 


4 


4.12 


4.24 


4.35 


4.47 


4.58 


3 


3.13 


3.24 


3.33 


3.43 


3.52 


3.62 


3.71 


4 


2.70 


2.80 


2.88 


2.96 


3.04 


3.12 


3.20 


5 


2.43 


2.52 


2.59 


2.67 


2.74 


2.81 


2.88 


6 


2.24 


2.32 


2.38 


2.45 


2.52 


2.59 


2.65 


7 


2.04 


2.12 


2.18 


2.24 


2.30 


2.36 


2.42 


8 


1.93 


2 


2.06 


2.12 


2.17 


2.23 


2.29 


9 


1.81 


1.88 


1.92 


1.99 


2.04 


2.11 


2.15 


10 


1.73 


1.79 


1.84 


1.89 


1.94 


2 


2.05 


11 


1.65 


1.70 


1.75 


1.81 


1.85 


1.90 


1.95 


12 


1.57 


1.62 


1.65 


1.72 


1.77 


1.81 


1.86 


13 


1.51 


1.57 


1.61 


1.67 


1.70 


1.75 


1.79 


14 


1.46 


1.51 


1.55 


1.60 


1.64 


1.68 


1.73 


15 


1.40 


1.44 


1.49 


1.53 


1.57 


1.62 


1.65 


16 


1.36 


1.41 


1.45 


1.49 


1.53 


1.57 


1.60 


17 


1.32 


1.37 


1.41 


1.45 


1.49 


1.53 


1.57 


18 


1.28 


1.33 


1.37 


1.41 


1.44 


1.48 


1.52 


19 


1.25 


1.29 


1.33 


1.37 


1.40 


1.44 


1.48 


20 


1.22 


1.26 


1.30 


1.33 


1.37 


1.41 


1.44 


21 


1.19 


1.23 


1.26 


1.30 


1.33 


1.38 


1.41 


22 


1.16 


1.20 


1.23 


1.27 


1.30 


1.34 


1.37 


23 


1.13 


1.17 


1.21 


1.24 


1.27 


1.31 


1.34 


24 


1.11 


1.15 


1.18 


1.22 


1.25 


1.28 


1.31 


25 


1.09 


1.13 


1.16 


1.19 


1.23 


1.26 


1.29 


26 


1.07 


1.10 


1.14 


1.17 


1.20 


1.23 


1.26 


27 


1.05 


1.08 


1.12 


1.15 


1.18 


1.21 


1.24 


28 


1.03 


1.06 


1.10 


1.13 


1.16 


1.19 


1.22 


29 


1.01 


1.05 


1.08 


1.11 


1.14 


1.17 


1.20 


30 


.997 


1.03 


1.06 


1.09 


1.12 


1.15 


1.18 


31 


.982 


1.01 


1.04 


1.07 


1.10 


1.13 


1.16 


32 


.967 


1 


1.03 


1.06 


1.08 


1.11 


1.14 


33 


.952 


.984 


1.01 


1.04 


1.07 


1.09 


1.12 


34 


.936 


.968 


.997 


1.02 


1.05 


1.08 


1.10 


35 


.924 


.956 


.984 


1.01 


1.03 


' 1.06 


1.09 


.36 


.909 


.940 


.967 


.996 


1.02 


1.05 


1.07 



110 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



IRON-TEETH SPUR WHEELS. 



H. P. 


44 


46 


48 


50 


60 


70 


80 


Velocity 
in feet i^er 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Second. 
















2 


4.69 


4.79 


4.89 


5 


5.47 


5.91 


6.32 


3 


3.79 


3.87 


3.96 


4.05 


4.43 


4.78 


5.11 


4 


3.28 


3.35 


3.42 


3.50 


3.82 


4.13 


4.42 


5 


2.95 


3.01 


3.08 


3.15 


3.44 


3.72 


3.98 


6 


2.72 


2.77 


2.83 


2.90 


3.17 


3.42 


3.66 


7 


2.48 


2.53 


2.59 


2.65 


2.89 


3.13 


3.34 


8 


2.34 


2.39 


2.44 


2.50 


2.73 


2.95 


3.16 


9 


2.20 


2.25 


2.29 


2.35 


2.57 


2.77 


2.97 


10 


2.09 


2.14 


2.19 


2.24 


2.45 


2.64 


2.83 


11 


2 


2.04 


2.08 


2.13 


2.33 


2.51 


2.69 


12 


1.90 


1.94 


1.99 


1.02 


2.22 


2.40 


2.57 


13 


1.84 


1.88 


1.92 


1.96 


2.14 


2.32 


2.48 


14 


1.77 


1.81 


1.85 


1.89 


2.06 


2.23 


2.38 


15 


1.69 


1.72 


1.77 


1.81 


1.98 


2.13 


2.28 


16 


1.65 


1.69 


1.72 


1.76 


1.93 


2.08 


2.23 


17 


1.60 


1.64 


1.67 


1.71 


1.87 


2.02 


2.16 


18 


1.56 


1.59 


1.62 


1.66 


1.82 


1.96 


2.10 


19 


1.51 


1.55 


1.58 


1.62 


1.77 


1.91 


2.04 


20 


1.48 


1.51 


1.54 


1.58 


1.72 


1.86 


1.99 


21 


1.44 


1.47 


1.50 


1.54 


1.67 


1.82 


1.94 


22 


1.40 


1.43 


1.46 


1.50 


1.64 


1.77 


1.89 


23 


1.37 


1.40 


1.43 


1.47 


1.60 


1.73 


1.85 


24 


1.35 


1.37 


1.40 


1.44 


1.57 


1.70 


1.82 


25 


1.32 


1.35 


1.38 


1.41 


1.54 


1.67 


1.78 


ii6 


1.29 


1.32 


1.35 


1.38 


1.51 


1.63 


1.75 


27 


1.27 


1.29 


1.33 


1.36 


1.48 


1.60 


1.71 


28 


1.25 


1.27 


1.30 


1.33 


1.46 


1.57 


1.68 


29 


1.23 


1.25 


1.28 


1.31 


1.43 


1.55 


1.66 


30 


1.21 


1.23 


1.26 


1.29 


1.41 


1.52 


1.63 


31 


1.19 


1.21 


1.24 


1.27 


1.38 


1.50 


1.60 


32 


1.17 


1.19 


1.22 


1.25 


1.36 


1.47 


1.58 


33 


1.15 


1.17 


1.20 


1.23 


1.34 


1.45 


1.55 


34 


1.13 


1.15 


1.18 


1.21 


1.32 


1.43 


1.52 


35 


1.12 


1.14 


1.16 


1.19 


1.30 


1.41 


1.51 


36 


1.10 


1.12 


1.14 


1.17 


1.28 


1.38 


1.48 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 



Ill 



IROIi^-TEETH SPUR WHEELS. 



H. P. 


90 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


250 




Velocity 
in feet per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 




Second. 




' 














2 


6.70 


7.07 


7.90 


8.65 


9.30 


10 


11.18 




3 


5.42 


5.72 


6.39 


7 


7.53 


8.10 


9.05 




4 


4.69 


4.99 


5.53 


6.05 


6.51 


7 


7.82 




5 


4.22 


4.45 


4.97 


5.44 


5.85 


6.30 


7.04 




6 


3.88 


4.10 


4.58 


5.01 


5.39 


5.80 


6.48 




7 


3.55 


3.74 


4.18 


4.58 


4.92 


5.30 


5.92 




8 


3.35 


3.53 


3.95 


4.32 


4.65 


5 


5.59 




9 


3.14 


3.32 


3.71 


4.06 


4.37 


4.70 


5.25 




10 


3 


3.16 


3.52 


3.87 


4.16 


4.48 


5 




11 


2.86 


3.01 


3.37 


3.69 


3.91 


4.27 


4.77 




12 


2.73 


2.87 


3.21 


3.52 


3.78 


4.07 


4.55 




13 


2.63 


2.77 


3.10 


3.40 


3.65 


3.93 


4.39 




14 


2.53 


2.67 


2.98 


3.26 


3.51 


3.78 


4.22 




15 


2.42 


2.55 


2.85 


3.13 


3.36 


3.62 


4!04 




16 


2.36 


2.47 


2.78 


3.05 


3.28 


3.53 


3.93 




17 


2.29 


2.42 


2.70 


2.96 


3.18 


3.43 


3.83 




18 


2.23 


2.35 


2.63 


2.88 


3.09 


3.33 


3.72 




19 


2.17 


2.29 


2.55 


2.80 


3.01 


3.24 


3.62 




20 


2.11 


2.23 


2.48 


2.73 


2.93 


3.16 


3.53 




21 


2.06 


2.17 


2.43 


2.66 


2.86 


3.08 


3.44 




22 


2.01 


2.12 


2.37 


2.59 


2.79 


3 


3.35 




23 


1.96 


2'.07 


2.32 


2.54 


2.73 


2.94 


3.28 




24 


1.92 


2.03 


2.27 


2.49 


2.67 


2.88 


3.21 




25 


1.89 


2 


2!23 


2.44 


2.63 


2.83 


3.16 




26 


1.85 


1.95 


2.18 


2.41 


2.57 


2.77 


3.09 




27 


1.82 


1.92 


2.14 


2.35 


2.52 


2.72 


3.04 




28 


1.78 


1.88 


2.10 


2.30 


2.48 


2.67 


2.98 




29 


1.76 


1.85 


2.07 


2.27 


2.44 


2.63 


2.94 




30 


1.72 


1.82 


2.03 


2.23 


2.39 


2.58 


2.88 




31 


1.70 


1.79 


2 


2.19 


2.36 


2.54 


2.83 




32 


1.67 


1.76 


1.97 


2.16 


2.32 


2.50 


2.79 




33 


1.64 


1.73 


1.94 


2.12 


2.28 


2.46 


2.75 




34 


1.62 


1.70 


1.91 


2.09 


2.25 


2.42 


2.70 




35 


1.60 


1.68 


1.88 


2.06 


2.22 


2^39 


2.67 




36 


1.57 


1.66 


1.85 


2.03 


2.1S 


2.35 


2.63 





112 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



IRON-TEETH BEVEL WHEELS. 



H. P. 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


Velocity 
in feat per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pilch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Seeoud. 
















2 


1.2 


1.68 


2.04 


2.40 


2.67 


2.92 


3.17 


3 


.972 


1.35 


1.64 


1.94 


2.16 


2.36 


2.56 


4 


.840 


1.17 


1.42 


1.68 


1.87 


2.04 


2.20 


5 


.756 


1.05 


1.28 


1.51 


1.70 


1.83 


1.99 


6 


.696 


.912 


1.16 


1.39 


1.54 


1.69 


1.83 


7 


.636 


.900 


1.08 


1.27 


1.41 


1.54 


1.66 


8 


.600 


.840 


1.02 


1.20 


1.33 


1.46 


1.58 


9 


.564 


.780 


.960 


1.12 


1.26 


1.35 


1.48 


10 


.531 


.752 


.912 


1.07 


1.19 


1.32 


1.41 


11 


.512 


.716 


.870 


1.02 


1.14 


1.24 


1.34 


12 


.489 


.685 


.831 


.979 


1.09 


1.19 


1.28 


13 


.471 


.661 


.801 


.943 


1.05 


1.14 


1.25 


14 


.453 


.634 


.770 


.907 


1.01 


1.10 


1.19 


15 


.434 


.607 


.738 


.868 


.980 


1.05 


1.14 


16 


.423 


.592 


.720 


.847 


.943 


1.03 


1.11 


17 


.411 


.576 


.699 


.823 


.916 


1 


1.08 


18 


.399 


.559 


.679 


.799 


.883 


.974 


1.05 


19 


.388 


.543 


.660 


.777 


.866 


.948 


1.02 


20 


.379 


.530 


.644 


.758 


.844 


.925 


1 


21 


.369 


.517 


.627 


.739 


.823 


.901 


.975 


22 


.360 


.504 


.612 


.720 


.802 


.878 


.950 


23 


.352 


.493 


.598 


.705 


.786 


.860 


.931 


24 


.345 


.483 


.586 


.691 


.770 


.842 


.912 


25 


.339 


.475 


.577 


.679 


.756 


.828 


.896 


26 


.332 


.465 


.564 


.664 


.740 


.810 


.877 


27 


.326 


.456 


.554 


.652 


.727 


.795 


.861 


28 


.320 


.447 


.543 


.640 


.714 


.781 


.844 


29 


.315 


.441 


.536 


.631 


.703 


.769 


.832 


30 


.309 


.433 


.525 


.619 


.690 


.754 : 


.817 


31 


.304 


.426 


.517 


.609 


.675 


.742 


.804 


32 


.300 


.420 


.510 


.600 


.668 


.732 


.792 


33 


.295 


.412 


.501 


.590 


.657 


.720 


.778 


34 


.290 


.405 


.493 


.580 


.646 


.708 


.765 


35 


.286 


.400 


.487 


.573 


.638 


.699 


.756 


36 


.282 


.394 


.478 


.564 


.628 


.687 


.744 



PITCH OV BEVEL WHEELS. 



113 



IRON^-TEETH BEVEL WHEELS. 



H. P. 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 




Velocity 

in feet per 

Second. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 




2 


3.38 


3.60 


3.79 


3.97 


4.15 


4.32 


4.48 




3 


2.73 


2.91 


3.06 


3.21 


3.36 


3.49 


3.62 




4 


2.36 


2.52 


2.65 


2.77 


2.90 


3.02 


3.13 




5 


2.12 


2.26 


2.38 


2.49 


2.60 


2.71 


2.82 




6 


1.95 


2.08 


2.19 


2.29 


2.40 


2.49 


2.59 




7 


1.78 


1.90 


2 


2.10 


2.19 


2.28 


2.37 




8 


1.68 


1.80 


1.89 


1.98 


2.07 


2.16 


2.24 




9 


1.58 


1.69 


1.77 


1.86 


1.94 


2.02 


2.10 




10 


1.51 


1.60 


1.69 


1.77 


1.86 


1.93 


2 




11 


1.44 


1.53 


1.60 


1.69 


1.76 


1.83 


1.90 




12 


1.38 


1.46 


1.53 


1.60 


1.69 


1.75 


1.82 




13 


1.32 


1.40 


1.48 


1.56 


1.62 


1.69 


1.75 




14 


1.27 


1.35 


1.42 


1.50 


1.56 


1.63 


1.69 




15 


1.22 


1.29 


1.36 


1.42 


1.50 


1.56 


1.62 




16 


1.19 


1.26 


1.33 


1.39 


1.46 


1.52 


1.58 




17 


1.14 


1.22 


1.29 


1.35 


1.41 


1.47 


1.53 




18 


1.12 


1.19 


1.26 


1.32 


1.38 


1.42 


1.48 




19 


1.09 


1.16 


1.22 


1.28 


1.34 


1.39 


1.45 




20 


1.06 


1.13 


1.19 


1.24 


1.30 


1.35 


1.41 




21 


1.04 


1.10 


1.16 


1.21 


1.27 


1.32 


1.38 




22 


1.01 


1.08 


1.13 


1.19 


1.23 


1.29 


1.34 




23 


.994 


1.05 


1.11 


1.16 


1.21 


1.26 


1.30 




24 


.974 


1.03 


1.09 


1.14 


1.18 


1.23 


1.28 




25 


.957 


1.01 


1.07 


1.12 


1.17 


1.21 


1.26 




26 


.937 


.997 


1.05 


1.09 


1.14 


1.19 


1.23 




27 


.921 


.979 


1.03 


1.08 


1.12 


1.17 


1.21 




28 


.902 


.961 


1.01 


1.05 


1.10 


1.15 


1.19 




29 


.889 


.946 


.997 


1.04 


1.09 


1.13 


1.17 




30 


.872 


.928 


.978 


1.02 


1.07 


1.12 


1.15 




31 


.859 


.914 


.962 


1 


1.05 


1.10 


1.13 




32 


.846 


.900 


.948 


.992 


1.03 


1.08 


1.12 




33 


.831 


.885 


.932 


.976 


1.02 


1.06 


1.10 




34 


.818 


.871 


.916 


.960 


1 


1.04 


1.08 




35 


.808 


.860 


.906 


.949 


.991 


1.03 


1.07 




36 


.794 


.846 


.890 


.932 


.975 


1.01 


1.05 





114 



PRACTICAL HINTS OiST MILL BtJtLDtM. 



IRON-TEETH BEVEL WHEELS. 



H. P. 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


Velocitj- 
in feet per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. . 


Pitch. 


Second 
















2 


4.64 


4.80 


4.94 


5.08 


5.22 


5.36 


5.49 


3 


3.75 


3.88 


3.99 


4.11 


4.22 


4.34 


4.45 


4 


3.24 


3.36 


3.45 


3.55 


3.64 


3.74 


3.84 


5 


2.91 


3.02 


3.17 


3.20 


3.28 


3.37 


3.45 


6 


2.68 


2.78 


2.85 


2.94 


3.02 


3.10 


3.18 


7 


2.44 


2.54 


2.61 


2.68 


2.76 


2.83 


2.90 


8 


2.31 


2.40 


2.47 


2.51 


2.60 


2.67 


2.74 


9 


2.17 


2.25 


2.30 


2.38 


2.44 


2.53 


2.58 


10 


2.07 


2.14 


2.20 


2.26 


2.32 


2.40 


2.46 


11 


1.98 


2.04 


2.10 


2.17 


2.22 


2.28 


2.34 


12 


1.88 


1.94 


2 


2.06 


2.12 


2.17 


2.25 


13 


1.81 


1.88 


1.93 


2 


2.04 


2.10 


2.14 


14 


1.75 


1.81 


1.86 


1.92 


1.96 


2.01 


2.07 


15 


1.68 


1.72 


1.78 


1.83 


1.88 


1.94 


1.98 


16 


1.63 


1.69 


1.74 


1.78 


1.83 


1.88 


1.92 


17 


1.58 


1.64 


1.69 


1.74 


1.78 


1.83 


1.88 


18 


1.53 


1.59 


1.64 


1.69 


1.72 


1.77 


1.82 


19 


1.50 


1.54 


1.59 


1.64 


1.68 


1.72 


1.77 


20 


1.46 


1.51 


1.56 


1.59 


1.64 


1.69 


1.72 


21 


1.42 


1.47 


1.51 


1.56 


1.59 


1.65 


1.69 


22 


1.39 


1.44 


1.47 


1.52 


1.56 


1.60 


1.64 


23 


1.35 


1.40 


1.45 


1.48 


1.52 


1.57 


1.60 


24 


1.33 


1.38 


1.41 


1.46 


1.50 


1.53 


1.57 


25 


1.30 


1.35 


1.39 


1.42 


1.47 


1.51 


1.54 


26 


1.28 


1.32 


1.36 


1.40 


1.44 


1.47 


1.51 


27 


1.26 


1.29 


1.34 


1.38 


1.41 


1.45 


1.48 


28 


1.23 


1.27 


1.32 


1.35 


1.39 


1.42 


1.46 


29 


1.21 


1.26 


1.29 


1.33 


1.36 


1.40 


1.44 


30 


1.19 


1.23 


1.27 


1.30 


1.34 


1.38 


1.41 


31 


1.17 


1.21 


1.24 


1.28 


1.32 


1.35 


1.39 


32 


1.16 


1.20 


1.23 


1.27 


1.29 


1.33 


1.36 


33 


1.14 


1.18 


1.21 


1.24 


1.28 


1.30 


1.34 


34 


1.12 


1.16 


1.19 


1.22 


1.26 


1.29 


1.32 


35 


1.10 


1.15 


1.18 


1.21 


1.23 


1.27 


1.30 


36 


1.09 


1.12 


1.16 


1.19 


1.22 


1.26 


1.28 



PITCH OE BEVEL WHEELS. 



115 



IROI^-TEETH BEVEL WHEELS. 



H. P. 


44 


46 


48 


50 


60 


70 


80 


Velocity 
in feet per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Second. 
















2 


5.62 


5.74 


5.86 


6 


6.56 


7.08 


7.58 


* 3 


4.54 


4.64 


4.75 


4.86 


5.31 


5.73 


6.13 


4 


3.93 


4.02 


4.10 


4.20 


4.58 


4.93 


5.30 


5 


3.54 


3.61 


3.69 


3.78 


4.12 


4.46 


4.77 


6 


3.26 


3.32 


3.39 


3.48 


3.80 


4.10 


4.39 


7 


2.97 


3.03 


3.10 


3.18 


3.46 


3.75 


4 


8 


2.80 


2.86 


2.92 


3 


3.27 


3.54 


3.79 


9 


2.64 


2.70 


2.74 


2.82 


3.08 


3.32 


3.56 


10 


2.50 


2.56 


2.62 


2.68 


2.94 


3.16 


3.39 


11 


2.40 


2.44 


2.49 


2.55 


2.79 


3.01 


3.22 


12 


2.28 


2.32 


2.38 


2.43 


2.66 


2.88 


3.08 


13 


2.20 


2.25 


2.30 


2.35 


2.56 


2.78 


2.97 


14 


2.12 


2.17 


2.22 


2.26 


2.47 


2.67 


2.85 


15 


2.02 


2.06 


2.12 


2.17 


2.37 


2.55 


2.73 


16 


1.98 


2.02 


2.06 


2.11 


2.31 


2.49 


2.67 


17 


1.92 


1.96 


2 


2.05 


2.24 


2.42 


2.59 


18 


1.87 


1.90 


1.94 


1.99 


2.18 


2.35 


2.52 


19 


1.81 


1.86 


1.89 


1.94 


2.12 


2.29 


2.44 


20 


1.77 


1.81 


1.84 


1.89 


2.06 


2.23 


2.38 


21 


1.72 


1.76 


1.80 


1.84 


2 


2.18 


2.32 


22 


1.68 


1.71 


1.75 


1.80 


1.96 


2.12 


2.26 


23 


1.64 


1.68 


1.71 


1.76 


1.92 


2.07 


2.22 


24 


1.62 


1.64 


1.68 


1.72 


1.88 


2.04 


2.18 


25 


1.58 


1.62 


1.65 


1.69 


1.84 


2 


2.13 


26 


1.54 


1.58 


1.62 


1.65 


1.81 


1.95 


2.10 


27 


1.52 


1.54 


1.59 


1.63 


1.77 


1.92 


2.05 


28 


1.50 


1.52 


1.56 


1.59 


1.75 


1.88 


2.01 


29 


1.47 


1.50 


1.53 


1.57 


1.71 


1.86 


1.99 


30 


1.45 


1.47 


1.51 


1.54 


1.69 


1.82 


1.95 


31 


1.42 


1.45 


1.48 


1.52 


1.65 


1.80 


1.92 


32 


1.40 


1.42 


1.46 


1.50 


1.63 


1.76 


1.89 


33 


1.38 


1.40 


1.44 


1.47 


1.60 


1.74 


1.86 


34 


1.35 


1.38 


1.41 


1.45 


1.58 


1.71 


1.82 


35 


1.34 


1.36 


1.39 


1.42 


1.56 


1.69 


1.81 


36 


1.32 


1.34 


1.36 


1.40 


1.53 


1.65 


1.77 



116 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



IRON-TEETH BEVEL WHEELS. 



H. P. 


90 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


250 


Velocity 
in feet per 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pilch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Second. 
















2 


8.04 


8.48 


9.48 


10.3 


11.6 


12 


13.4 


3 


6.50 


6.86 


7.66 


8.40 


9.03 


9.72 


10.8- 


4 


5.62 


5.98 


6.63 


7.26 


7.82 


8.40 


9.38 


5 


5.06 


5.34 


5.96 


6.52 


7.02 


7.56 


8.44 


6 


4.67 


4.92 


5.49 


6.02 


6.46 


6.96 


7.77 


7 


4.26 


4.48 


5.01 


5.49 


5.90 


6.36 


7 


8 


4.02 


4.23 


4.74 


5.18 


5.58 


6 


6.70 


9 


3.76 


3.98 


4.45 


4.87 


5.24 


5.64 


6.30 


10 


3.60 


3.79 


4.22 


4.64 


4.99 


5.37 


6 


11 


3.43 


3.61 


4.04 


4.42 


4.79 


5.12 


5.72 


12 


3.27 


3.44 


3.85 


4.22 


4.53 


4.84 


5.46 


13 


3.15 


3.32 


3.71 


4.08 


4.38 


4.71 


5.26 


14 


3.03 


3.20 


3.57 


3.91 


4.21 


4.53 


5.06 


15 


2.90 


3.06 


3.44 


3.75 


4.03 


4.34 


4.80 


16 


2.83 


2.97 


3.33 


3.66 


3.92 


4.23 


4.71 


17 


2.74 


2.90 


3.24 


3.55 


3.81 


4.12 


4.59 


18 


2.67 


2.83 


3.15 


3.44 


3.70 


3.99 


4.46 


19 


2.60 


2.76 


3.06 


3.36 


3.61 


3.88 


4.32 


20 


2.53 


2.67 


2.97 


3.27 


3.51 


3.79 


4.23 


21 


2.47 


2.60 


2.91 


3.19 


3.43 


3.69 


4.12 


22 


2.41 


2.54 


2.84 


3.10 


3.34 


3.60 


4.02 


23 


2.35 


2.48 


2.78 


3.04 


3.27 


3.52 


3.93 


24 


2.30 


2.43 


2.72 


2.98 


3.20 


3.45 


3.85 


25 


2.26 


2.40 


2.67 


2.92 


3.15 


3.39 


3.79 


26 


2.22 


2.35 


2.61 


2.89 


3.08 


3.o2 


3.70 


27 


2.18 


2.30 


2.56 


2.82 


3.02 


3.26 


3.64 


28 


2.14 


2.27 


2.52 


2.76 


2.97 


3.20 


3.58 


29 


2.11 


2.22 


2.48 


2.72 


2.92 


3.15 


3.52 


30 


2.07 


2.18 


2.43 


2.67 


2.86 


3.09 


3.45 


31 


2.04 


2.14 


2.40 


2.62 


2.83 


3.04 


3.39 


32 


2 


2.11 


2.36 


2.59 


2.78 


3 


3.34 


33 


1.96 


2.07 


2.32 


2.54 


2.73 


2.95 


3.30 


34 


1.94 


2.04 


2.29 


2.50 


2.70 


2.90 


3.24 


35 


1.92 


2.01 


2.24 


2.47 


2.66 


2.86 


3.20 


36 


1.88 


1.99 


2.22 


2.43 


2.61 


2.82 


3.15 



PITCH OF COG WHEELS. 117 

We should have stated in our previous remarks in refer- 
ence to the foregoing tables that the calculations are based 
on a unit of width for teeth or cogs ; consequently, as the 
pitch increases the cogs become relatively stronger, because 
they are usually made wider. This is just as it should be, 
for the reason that the coarser the pitch the fewer the cogs 
that bear at one time. For instance, if it should ever become 
necessary to use a wheel having a pitch equal to the coarsest 
named in the tables, one cog at a time would have to do all 
the work in the main, while with finer pitch two or more 
cogs have a constant bearing on the work. But we do not 
consider, even with that difi:erence, that the full pitch is nec- 
essary for the work named in the table; consequently we 
would say as a guide for those not well posted as to the 
strength of wheels, in looking for wheels less than a half- 
inch pitch, look for a pitch greater than that the tables call 
for, as a matter of economy in saving wear and tear; in 
looking for a wheel more than five inches pitch, select a 
pitch somewhat less than the tables call for. This is also 
done for economy in material, and for convenience as well. 
There is ample strength margin in all the heavy wheels to 
draw on. 




ARTICLE XIV. 

BELTING. 

One of the vexed questions among millers, millwrights 
and others interested in the matter, is just how to determine, 
under all circumstance, what width of belt is necessary to 
transmit a given amount of power. It is generally known 
that the faster a belt travels the more power it transmits; 
and it is also generally supposed that the larger the pulleys 
the more power is transmitted. This, however, is true only 
in part. If by increasing the size of the pulleys the speed 
of the belt is increased, then will there be a gain of power; 
but if the size of pulleys is increased without increasing 
the travel of the belt, then will there be no appreciable gain. 
This, however, is not liable to occur, as an increase in the 
size of pulleys (both pulleys) means an increase in the speed 
of the belt, otherwise the speed of whatever machinery is 
being driven would be changed, and, hence the belt, by its 
increased velocity in feet per minute, accomplishes what is 
very frequently attributed to increased pulley surface. The 
principle involved is that a belt having a one hundred and 
eighty degree bearing on a twenty-four inch pulley, and 
traveling at a given velocity, will transmit the same amount 
of power that the same kind of a belt having the same bear- 
ing (180°), the same tension, and moving at the same rate 
of speed, would on a forty-eight inch pulley; provided, of 
course, that all other things are equal. The belt must be of 
the same material, the same weight, and the pulley the same 
kind and made in the same way. The power transmitted 
by a belt is proportionate to the width of belt, the speed it 
travels, and the arc of contact on the same pulley without 



SELTINGl. 119 

atly special reference to the size of pulley. We, of course, 
except very small pulleys. Where pulleys are very small it 
makes the curve of the belt so short that it can't or don't 
have the same effect as on large pulleys. In order to estab- 
lish a uniform method of determining the required width of 
belt, and to assist those not well versed in the theory and 
practice of belt transmission, we have carefully, and as accu- 
rately as possible, prepared a table for determining the horse- 
power different widths of belts will transmit at the same 
and at different speeds, bearing on five different divisions or 
arcs of pulley. The table is based on pulleys of one foot in 
diameter and upward; for pulleys much less than one foot 
in diameter reasonable allowance must be made. The top 
of each column of figures indicates the arc of contact, both 
in degrees and in divisions of halves, quarters, eighths and 
sixteenths. In order to use the table certainly, first ascer- 
tain as nearly as possible the number of horse-powers to be 
transmitted, then a diagram of pulleys and belt should be 
made, and the smaller pulley divided into sixteen parts by 
stepping around with the dividers. By that means the num- 
ber of sixteenths that the belt touches can be ascertained. If 
it should be five-sixteenths, for instance, then examine the 
five-sixteenths column opposite the speed the belt travels, 
until the horse-power intended to be transmitted is found; 
above that will be the width of belt required. 

As an example, require the width of belt it will take to 
transmit nineteen horse-power, running 2500 feet per min- 
ute, and having a 5-16, or 112J°, bearing on small pulley. To 
find it, run down the first left-hand column until the 2500 is 
reached, then follow the line to the right, examining each 
5-16 column until the 19 is found. Above that it will be 
found — an 8-inch belt is required. 

To ascertain the power of a one, three, five and seven- 
inch belt, or such as are not named in the table, their rela- 
tion to the width of any other belt named in the list, should 
be found. Thus, a three-inch belt will transmit one and a 
half times as much power as a two-inch belt, with the same 



120 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BtJILDlNa. 

tension, traveling at tlie same speed and having the same 
arc of contact. The same is also true in relation to the dif- 
ferent speeds. A two-inch belt traveling at the rate of one 
hundred and fifty feet per minute will transmit one and a 
half times the power of the same belt traveling one hundred 
feet per minute, the other conditions being the same. By 
paying strict attention to these two facts, there will be no 
trouble in ascertaining, by the use of the table, the power 
that any width belt will transmit, running at any speed and 
having any arc of contact named in the table. 

These calculations and tables are designed only for single 
leather belts. We do not assume to know whether leather 
or rubber will transmit the most power, all things being 
equal; in that respect would be willing to risk either; but 
for other reasons would, for flour-mill work generally, pre- 
fer leather. Double leather belts are supposed to transmit 
about one-third more power than single, and that allowance 
can be made on table calculations. Pulleys, covered with 
leather, add about twenty-five per cent, to their effective- 
ness. Belts should run with the grain side to the pulley. 
When cross belts or tighteners are used, it is so much of a 
gain in power, by increasing the arc of contact. We would 
advise, though, not to use cross belts, unless very narrow or 
running very slow, except when it cannot be avoided. 
Tighteners should always bear against the slack side of the 
belt; never against the tight or working side. Belts to pro- 
duce table results must have a reasonable tension; such a 
tension as the judgment of most practical mechanics give 
belts. By the judgment only can we measure the tension as 
a general rule. 



BELTING. 



121 



1 

is 


2-inch Beit. 


4-inch Beit. 




1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


.5-16 or 


1-4 or 




|i 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


112%° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


1131/2° 


80° 




100 


.25 


.23 


.21 


.19 


.16 


.5 


.46 


.42 


.38 


.32 




iiOO 


.5 


.46 


.42 


-.38 


.32 


1. 


.92 


.84 


76 


.64 




300 


.75 


.69 


.63 


.57 


.48 


1.5 


1.38 


1.26 


1.14 


.96 




400 


1 


.92 


.84 


.76 


.64 


2 


1.84 


1.68 


1.52 


1.28 




500 


1.25 


1.15 


1.05 


.95 


.80 


2.5 


2.30 


2.1 


1.9 


1.6 




600 


1.5 


1.38 


1.26 


1.14 


.96 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2.28 


1.92 




700 


1.75 


1.61 


1.47 


1.33 


1.12 


3.5 


3.22 


2.94 


2.66 


2.24 




800 


2 


1.84 


1.68 


1.52 


1.28 


4 


3.68 


3.36 


3.04 


2.56 




900 


2.25 


2.07 


1.89 


1.71 


1.44 


4.5 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2.88 




1000 


2.5 


2..30 


2.1 


1.9 


1.6 


5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.80 


3.2 




1100 


2.75 


2.53 


2.31 


2.09 


1.76 


1 5.5 


5.06 


4.62 


4.18 


3.52 




1200 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2,28 


1.92 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 




1300 


3.25 


2.99 


2.73 


2.47 


2.08 


i 6.5 


5.98 


5.46 


4.94 


4.16 




1400 


3.5 


3.22 


2.94 


2.66 


2 24 


' 7 


6.44 


5.88 


5.32 


4.48 




1500 


3.75 


3.45 


3.15 


2.85 


2.4 


i 7.5 


6.9 


6.3 


5.7 


4.8 




1600 


4 


3.68 


3.36 


3.04 


2.56 


8 


7.36 


6.72 


6.08 


5.12 




1700 


4.25 


3.91 


3.57 


3.23 


2.72 


8.5 


7.82 


7.14 


6.46 


5.44 




1800 


4.45 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2^88 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 




1900 


4.75 


4.37 


3.99 


3.61 


3.04 


9.5 


8.74 


7.98 


7.22 


6.08 




2000 


5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 


10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 




2100 


5.25 


4.83 


4.41 


3.99 


3.36 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 




2200 


5.5 


5.06 


4.62 


4.18 


3.52 


11 


10.12 


9.24 


8.36 


7.04 




2300 


5.75 


5.29 


4.83 


4.37 


3.68 


11.5 


10.58 


9.66 


8.74 


7.36 




2400 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 




2500 


6.25 


5.75 


5.25 


4.75 


4 


12.5 


11.5 


10.5 


9.5 


8 




2600 


6.5 


5.98 


5.46 


4.94 


4.16 


13 


11.96 


10.92 


9.88 


8.32 




2700 


6.75 


6.21 


5.67 


5.13 


4.32 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 


10.26 


8.64 




2800 


7 


6.44 


5.88 


5.32 


4.48 


14 


12.88 


11.76 


10.64 


8.96 




2900 


7.25 


6.67 


6.09 


5.51 


4.64 


14.5 


13.34 


12.18 


11.02 


9.28 




3000 


7.5 


6.90 


6.3 


5.70 


4.8 


15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.60 




3100 


7.75 


7.13 


6.51 


5.89 


4.96 


15.5 


14.26 


13.02 


11.78 


9.94 




3200 


8 


7.36 


6.72 


6.08 


5.12 


16 


14.72 


13.44 


12.16 


10.24 




3300 


8.25 


7.59 


6.93 


6.27 


5.28 


16.5 


15.18 


13.S6 


12.54 


10.56 




3400 


8.5 


7.82 


7.14 


6.46 


5.44 


17 


15.64 


14.28 


12.92 


10.88 




3500 


8.75 


8.05 


7.35 


6.55 


5.6 


17.5 


16.1 


14.7 


13.3 


11.2 




3600 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 




3700 


9.25 


8.51 


7.77 


7.03 


5.92 


18.5 


17.02 


15.54 


14.06 


11.84 




3800 


9.5 


8.74 


7.98 


7.22 


6.08 


19 


17.48 


15.96 


14.44 


12.16 




3900 


9.75 


8.97 


8.19 


7.41 


6.24 


19.5 


17.94 


16.38 


14.82 


12.48 




4000 


10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 




4200 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


13.44 




4400 


11 


10.12 


9.24 


8.36 


7.4 


22 


20.24 


18.48 


16.72 


14.08 




4600 


11.5 


10.58 


9.66 


8.74 


7.36 


23 


21.16 


19.32 


17.48 


14.72 




4800 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 




5000 


12.5 


11.5 


10.5 


9.5 


8 


25 


23 


21 


19 


16 




5400 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 


10.26 


8.64 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 




5800 


14.5 


13.34 


12.18 


11.02 


9.28 


29 


26.68 


24.36 


22.04 


18.56 




6200 


15.5 


14.26 


13.02 


11.78 


9.92 


31 


28.52 


26.04 


23.56 


19.84 





122 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



.■gi 


6-inch Belt. 


8-inch Beit. 


1-2 01- 


7-16 oi- 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


100 


180°. 


ls? i/aO 


135° 


112^2° 


90° 


180° 


157'/2° 


135° 


•1121/2° 


90° 


.75 


.69 


.63 


.57 


.48 


1 


.92 


.84 


.76 


.64 


200 


1.5 


1.38 


1.26 


1.14 


.96 


2 


1.84 


1.68 


1.52 


1.28 


300 


2.25 


2.07 


1.89 


1.71 


1.44 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2.28 


1.92 


400 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2.28 


1.92 


4 


3.68 


3.36 


3.04 


2.56 


500 


3.75 


3.45 


3.15 


2.85 


2.4 


5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.8 


3.20 


600 


4.5 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2.88 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 


700 


5.25 


4.83 


4.41 


3.99 


3.36 


7 


6.44 


5.88 


5.32 


4.48 


800 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 


8 


7.36 


6.72 


6.08 


5.12 


900 


6.75 


6.21 


5.67 


5.13 


4.32 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


1000 


7.5 


6.9 


6.3 


5.70 


4.8 


10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 


1100 


8.25 


7.59 


6.93 


6.27 


5.28 


11 


10.12 


9.24 


8.36 


7.04 


1200 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


130U 


9.75 


8.97 


8.19 


7.41 


6.24 


13 


11.96 


10.92 


9.88 


8.32 


1400 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 


14 


12.88 


11.76 


10.64 


8.96 


1500 11.25 


10.35 


9.45 


8.55 


7.2 


15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 


1600 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


16 


14.72 


13.44 


12.16 


10.24 


1700 


12.75 


11.73 


10.71 


9.69 


8.16 


17 


15.64 


14.28 


12.92 


10.88 


1800 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 


10.26 


8.64 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


1900 


14.25 


13.11 


11.97 


10.83 


9.12 


19 


17.48 


15.96 


14.44 


12.16 


2000 


15 


13.08 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 


2100 


15.75 


14.49 


13.23 


11.97 


10.08 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


13.44 


2200 


16.5 


15.18 


13.86 


12.54 


10.56 


22 


20.24 


18.48 


16.72 


14.08 


2300 


17.25 


15.87 


14.49 


13.11 


11.04 


23 


21.16 


19.32 


17.48 


14.72 


2400 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11:52 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 


2500 


18.75 


17.25 


15.75 


14.25 


12 


25 


23 


21 


19 


16 


2600 


19.5 


•17.94 


16.38 


14.82 


12.48 


26 


23.92 


21.84 


19.76 


16.64 


2700 


20.25 


18.63 


17.01 


15.39 


12.96 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


2800 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


13.44 


28 


25.76 


23.52 


21.28 


17.92 


2900 


21.75 


20.01 


18.27 


16.53 


13.92 


29 


26.68 


24.36 


22.04 


18.56 


3000 


22.5 


20.7 


18.90 


17.1 


14.4 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


3100 


23.25 


21.39 


19.53 


17.67 


14.88 


31 


28.52 


26.04 


23.56 


19.84 


3200 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 


32 


29.44 


26.88 


24.32 


20.48 


3300 


24.75 


22.77 


20.79 


18.81 


15.84 


33 


30.36 


27.72 


25.08 


21.12 


3400 


25.5 


23.46 


21.42 


19.38 


16.32 


34 


31.28 


28.56 


25.84 


21.76 


3500 


26.25 


24.15 


22.05 


19.95 


16.8 


35 


32.2 


29.4 


26.6 


22.4 


3600 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


36 


33.12 


30.24 


27.56 


23.04 


3700 


27.75 


25.53 


23.31 


21.09 


17.76 


37 


34.04 


31.08 


28.12 


23.68 


3800 


28.5 


26.22 


23.94 


21.66 


18.24 


38 


34.96 


31.92 


28.88 


24.32 


3900 


29.25 


26.91 


24.57 


22.23 


18.72 


39 


35.88 


32.76 


29.64 


24.96 


4000 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


40 


36.8 


33.6 


30.4 


25.6 


4200 


31.5 


28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


26.88 


4400 


33 


30.36 


27.72 


25.08 


21.12 


44 


40.48 


36.96 


33.44 


28.16 


4600 


34.5 


31.74 


28.98 


26.22 


22.08 


46 


42.32 


38.64 


34.96 


29.44 


4800 


36 


33.12 


30.24 


27.36 


23.04 


48 


44.16 


40.32 


36.48 


30.72 


5000 


37.5 


34.5 


31.5 


28.5 


24 


50 


46 


42 


38 


32 


5400 


40.5 


37.26 


34.02 


30.78 


25.92 


54 


49.68 


45.36 


41.04 


34.56 


5800 


43.5 


40.02 


36.54 


33.06 


27.84 


58 


53.36 


48.72 


44.08 


37.02 


6200 


46.5 


42.78 


39.06 


35.34 


29.76 


62 


57.06 


52.08 


47.12 


39.58 



BELTING. 



123 



^2 . 
a" 


10-inch Belt. 1 

1 


12-inch Belt. 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 1 


100 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


1121/2° 


90° 


180° 


15714° 


135° 


1121/2° 


90° 


1.25 


1.15 


1.05 


.95 


.8 


1.5 


1.38 


1.26 


1.14 


.96 


200" 2.5 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


1.6 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2 28 


1.92 : 


800 3.75 


3.45 


3.15 


2.85 


2.4 


4.5 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2.88 


400' 5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


8.84 


500' 6.25 


5.75 


5.25 1 4.75 


4 


7.5 


6.9 


6.3 


5.7 


4.8 


600: 7.5 


6.9 6.3 


5.7 


4.8 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


700, 8.75 


8.05 


7.35 


6.65 


5.6 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 


800 10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 


12 


11.04 


'10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


900 11.25 


10.35 


9.45 


8.55 


7.2 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 


10.26 


8.64 


lOOOi 12.5 


11.5 


10.5 


9.5 


8 


15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 


1100: 13.75 


12.65 


11.55 


10.45 


8.8 


16.5 


15.18 


13.86 


12.54 


10.56 


1200; 15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


1300 16.25 


14.95 


13.65 12.35 


10.4 


19.5 


17.94 


16.38 


14.82 


12.48 


lUOOi 17.5 


16.1 


14.7 i 13.3 


11.2 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


18.44 


!l500 18.75 


17.25 


15.75 14.25 


12 


22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.1 


14.4 


11600 20 


18.4 


16.8 ; 15.2 


12.8 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 


1700: 21.25 


19.55 


17.85 


16.15 


13.6 


25.5 


23.46 


21.421 19.38 


16.32 


1800 22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.2 


14.4 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


1900 23.75 i 21.85 


19.95 


18.05 


15.2 


28.5 


26.22 


23.94 


21.66 


18.24 ' 


2000 25 


23 


21 


19 


16 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


2100: 26.25 


24.15 


22.05 


19.95 


16.8 


31.5 


28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


'2200; 27.5 


25.3 


23.1 


20.9 


17.6 


38 


80.86 


27.72 


25.08 


21.12 


2300! 28.75 


26.45 


24.15 


21.85 


18.4 


34.5 


81.74 


28.98 


26.22 


22,08 


2400] 30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


36 


38.12 


30.24 


27.36 


23.04 


2500 31.25 


28.75 


26.25 


23.75 


20 


37.5 


34.5 


81.5 


28.5 


24 


2600| 32.5 


29.9 


27.3 


24.7 


20.8 


39 


85.88 


32.76 


29.64 


24.96 


2700| 33.75 


31.05 


28.35 


25.65 


21.6 


40.5 


87.26 


34.02 


30.78 


25.92 


2800 35 32.2 


29.4 


26.6 


22.4 


42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


26.88 


2900i 36.25 i 33.35 


30.45 


27.55 


23.2 


43.5 


40.02 


36.54 


33.06 


27.84 


3000 37.5 


34.5 


81.5 


28.5 


24 


45 


41.4 


37.8 


34.2 


28.8 


3100: 38.75 


35.65 


82.55 


29.45 


24.8 


46.5 


42.78 


39.06 


85.34 


29.76 


3200 40 


36.8 


83.6 


30.4 


25.6 


48 


44.16 


40.82 


36.48 


30.72 


3300 41.25 


37.95 


34.65 


31.15 


26.4 


49.5 


45 54 


41.58 


37.62 


31.68 


3400 42.5 


39.1 


35.7 


32.3 


27.2 


51 


46.92 


42.84 


38.76 


32.64 


3500 43.75 


40.25 


36.75 1 33.25 


28 


52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


38.6 


3600 45 


41.4 


87.8 i 84.2 


28.8 


54 


49.68 


45.86 


41.04 


34.56 


3700 46.25 


42.55 


38.85 


35.15 


29.6 


55.5 


51.06 


46.62 


42.18 


35.52 


38001 47.5 


43.7 


39.9 


36.1 


80.4 


57 


52.44 


47.88 


43.82 


36.48 


3900 48.75 


44.85 


40.95 


37.05 


81.2 


58.5 


53.82 


49.14 


44.46 


37.44 


4000 50 


46 


42 


38 


82 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 


4200: 52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


83.6 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


4400 55 


50.6 


46.2 


41.8 


35.2 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 


4600 57.5 


52.9 


48.3 


48.7 


36.8 


69 


63.48 


57.96 


52.44 


44.16 


4800 60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


88.4 


72 


66.24 


60.48 


54.72 


46.08 


50001 62.5 


57.5 


52.5 


47.5 


40 


75 


69 


68 


57 


48 


5400 67.5 


62.1 


56.7 


51.3 


43.2 


81 


74.52 


68.04 


61.56 


51.84 


5800 72.5 


66.7 


60.9 


55.1 


46.4 


87 


80.04 


73.08 


66.12 


55.68 


6200 77.5 


71.3 


65.1 


58.9 


49.6 


93 


85.56 


78.12 


70.68 


59.52 



124 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 





14-inch Belt. 


16-inch Beit. 


1-2 oi- 


7-lC or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


l> ^ 


180°. 


15714° 


135° 


112'/2° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


1131/2° 


90° 


100 


1.75 


1.61 


1.47 


1.33 


1.22 


2 


1.84 


1.68 


1.52 


1.28 


200 


3.5 


3.22 


2.94 


2.66 


2.44 


4 


3.68 


3.36 


3.04 


2.56 


300 


5.25 


4.83 


4.41 


3.99 


3.66 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 


400 


7 


6.44 


5.88 


5.32 


4.88 


8 


7.36 


6.72 


6.08 


5.12 


500| 8.75 


8.05 


7.35 


6.65 


6.1 


10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 


600 10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


7.32 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


700 12.25 


11.27 


10.29 


9.31 


8.54 


14 


12.88 


11.76 


10.64 


8.96 


800 14 


12.88 


11.76 


10.64 


9.76 


16 


14-72 


13.44 


12.16 


10.24 


900 15.75 


14.49 


13.23 


11.97 


10.98 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


1000 17.5 


16.1 


14.7 


13.3 


12.2 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 


llOO' 19.25 


17.71 


16.17 


14.63 


13.42 


22 


20.24 


18.48 


16.72 


14.08 


1200 21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


14.64 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 


1300 22.75 


20.93 


19.11 


17.29 


15.86 


26 


23.92 


21.84 


19.76 


16.64 


1400 24.5 


22.54 


20.58 


18.62 


17.08 


28 


25.76 


23.52 


21.28 


17.92 


1500 


26.25 


24.15 


22.05 


19.95 


18.3 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


1600 


28 


25.76 


23.52 


21.28 


19.52 


32 


29.44 


26.88 


24.32 


20.48 


1700 


29-75 


27.37 


24.99 


22.61 


20.74 


34 


31.28 


28.56 


25.84 


21.76 


1800 


31.5 


28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


21.96 


36 


33.12 


30.24 


27.36 


23.04 


1900 


33.25 


30.59 


27.93 


25.27 


23.18 


38 


34.96 


31.92 


28.88 


24.32 


2000 


35 


32.20 


29.4 


26.6 


24.4 


40 


36.8 


33.6 


30.4 


25.6 


2100| 36.75 


33.81 


30.87 


27.93 


25.62 


42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


26.88 


2200 


38.5 


35.42 


32.34 


29.26 


26.84 


44 


40.48 


36.96 


33.44 


28.16 


2300 


40-25 


37.02 


33.81 


30.59 


28.06 


46 


42.32 


38.64 


34.96 


29.44 


2400 


42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


29.28 


48 


44.16 


40.32 


36.48 


30.72 


2500 


43-75 


40.25 


36.75 


33.25 


30.5 


50 


46. 


42 


38 


32 


2600 


45.5 


41.86 


38.22 


34.58 


31.72 


52 


47.84 


43.68 


39.52 


33.28 


2700 


47-25 


43.47 


39.69 


35.91 


32.94 


54 


49.68 


45.36 


41.04 


34.56 


2800 


49 


45.08 


41.16 


37.24 


34.16 


56 


51.52 


47.04 


42.56 


35.84 


2900 


50-75 


46.69 


42.63 


38.57 


32.38 


58 


53.36 


48.72 


44.08 


37.12 


3000 


52-5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


36.6 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 


3100 


54-25 


49.91 


45.57 


41.23 


37.82 


62 


57.04 


52.08 


47.12 


39.68 


3200 


56 


51.52 


47.04 


42.56 


39.04 


64 


98.88 


53.76 


48.64 


40.96 


3300 


57-75 


53.13 


48.51 


43.89 


40.26 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 


3400 


59-5 


54.74 


49.98 


45.22 


41.48 


68 


62.56 


57.12 


51.68 


43.52 


3500 


61-25 


56.35 


51.45 


46.55 


42.7 


70 


64.4 


58.8 


53.2 


44.8 


3600 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


43.92 


72 


66.24 


60.48 


54.72 


46.08 


3700 


64-75 


59.57 


54.39 


49.21 


45.14 


74 


68.08 


62.16 


56.24 


47.36 


3800 


66-5 


61.18 


55.86 


50.54 


46.36 


• 76 


69.92 


63.84 


57.76 


48.64 


3900 


08-25 


62.79 


57.33 


51.87 


47.58 


78 


71.76 


65.52 


59.18 


49.92 


4000 


70 


64.4 


58.8 


53.2 


48.8 


80 


73.6 


67.2 


60.8 


51.2 


4200 


73-5 


67.62 


61.74 


55.86 


51.24 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


53.76 


4400 


77 


70.84 


64.68 


58.22 


53.68 


88 


80.96 


73.92 


66.88 


56.32 


4600 


80-5 


74.06 


67.42 


61.18 


56.12 


92 


84.64 


77.28 


69.92 


58.88 


4800 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


58.56 


96 


88.32 


80.64 


72.96 


61.44 


5000 


87-5 


80.5 


73.5 


66.5 


61 


100 


92 


84 


76 


64 


5400 


94-5 


86.84 


79.38 


71.82 


65.88 


108 


99.36 


90.72 


82.08 


69.12 


5800|101.5 


93.38 


85.16 


77.14 


70.76 


116 


106.72 


97.44 


88.16 


74.32 


6200108-5 


96.82 


91.14 


82.46 


75.64 


124 


114.08 


104.16 


94.24 


79.36 



BELTING. 



125 





1 


18-inch Belt. 




20- 


inch Belt. 






1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 




1^ 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


113%° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


11312° 


90° 


': 


100 


2.25 


2.07 


1.89 


1.71 


1.44 


2.5 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


1.6 


': 


200 


4.5 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2.88 


5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 




300 


6.75 


6.21 


5.67 


5.13 


4.32 


7.5 


6.9 


6.3 


5.7 


4.8 




400 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


10 


9.2 


.8.4 


7.6 


6.4 




500 


11.25 


10.35 


9.45 i 8.55 


7.2 


12.5 


11.5 


10.5 


9.5 


8 




600 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 10.26 


8.64 


15 


13.» 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 




700 


15.75 


14.49 


18.23 


11.97 


10.08 


17.5 


16.1 


14.7 


13.3 


11.2 




800 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 




900 


20.25 


18.68 


17.01 


15.39 


12.96 


22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.1 


14.4 




1000 


22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.1 


14.4 


25 


23 


21 


19 


16 




1100 


24.75 


22.77 


20.79 


18.81 


15.84 


27.5 


25.3 


23.1 


20.9 


17.6 




1200 


27 1 24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 




1800 


29.25 ! 26.91 


24.57 


22.23 


18.72 


32.5 


29.9 


27.3 


24.7 


20.8 




1400 


31.5 28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


35 


32.2 


29.4 


26.6 


22.4 




1500 


33.75 31.05 


28.35 


25.65 


21.6 


37.5 


34.5 


31.5 


28.5 


24 




1600 


36 


38.12 


80.24 


27.36 


23.04 


40 


36.8 


33.6 


30.4 


25.6 




1700 


38.25 


85.19 


32.13 i 29.07 


24.48 


42.5 


39.1 


35.7 


32.3 


27.2 




1800 


40.5 


37.26 


34.02! 30.78 


25.92 


45 


41.4 


37.8 


34.2 


28.8 




1800 


42.75 


39.33 


35.91 


32.49 


27.36 


47.5 


43.7 


39.9 


36.1 


30.4 




2000 


45 


41.4 


87.8 


34.2 


28.8 


50 


46 


42 


38 


32 




2100 


47.25 43.47 


39.69 


35.91 


30.24 


52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


33.6 




2200 


49.5 


45.54 


41.58 


37.62 


31.68 


55 


50.6 


46.2 


41.8 


35.2 




2S00 


51.75 


47.61 


43.47 


39.33 


33.12 


57.5 


52.9 


48.3 


43.7 


36.8 




2400 


54 


49.68 


45.36 41.04 


34.56 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 




2500 


56.25 


51.75 


47.25 


42.75 


36 


62.5 


57.5 


52.5 


47.5 


40 




2600 


57.5 


53.82 


49.14 


44.46 


37.44 


66 


59.8 


54.6 


49.4 


41.6 




2700 


60.75 


55.89 


51.08 


46.17 


38.88 


67.5 


62.1 


56.7 


51.3 


43.2 




2800 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


70 


64.4 


58.8 


53.2 


44.8 


• 


2900 


65.25 


60.03 


54.81 


49.59 


41.76 


72.5 


66.7 


C0.9 


55.1 


46.4 




3000 


67.5 


62.1 


56.7 


51.3 


43.2 


75 


69 


63 


57 


48 




3100 


69.75 


64.17 


58.59 


53.01 


44.64 


77.5 


71.3 


65.1 


58.9 


49.6 




3200 


72 


66.24 


60.48 


54.72 


46.08 


80 


73.2 


67.2 


60.8 


51.2 




3300 


74.25 


68 31 


62.37 


56.43 


47.52 


82.5 


75.9 


69.3 


62.7 


52.8 




3400 


76.5 


70.38 


64.26 


58.14 


48.96 


85 


78.2 


71.4 


64.6 


54.4 




3500 


78.75 


72.45 


66.15 


59.85 


50.4 


87.5 


80.5 


73.5 


66.5 


56 




3600 


81 


74.52 


68.04 


61.56 


51.84 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 




3700 


83.25 


76.59 


69.93 


63.27 


53.28 


92.5 


85.1 


77.7 


70.3 


59.2 




38(10 


85.5 


78.66 


71.82 


64.98 


54.72 


95 


87.i 


79.8 


72.2 


60.8 




i3900 


87.75 


80.73 


78.71 


66.69 


56.16 


97.5 


89.7 


81.9 


74.1 


62.4 




|4000 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 


100 


92 


84 


76 


64 


■ 


4200 


94.5 


86.94 


79.38 


71.82 


60.48 


105.5 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 


, 


4400 


99 


91.08 


83.16 


75.24 


63.36 


110 


100.2 


92.4 


83.6 


70.4 




4600 


103.5 


95.22 


86.74 


78.66 


66.24 


115 


105.8 


96.6 


87.4 


73.6 




4800 


108 


99.36 


90.72 


82.08 


69.12 


120 


110.4 


100.8 


91.2 


76.8 




5000 


112.5 


103.5 


94.5 


85.5 


72 


125 


115 


105 


95 


80 




5400 


121.5 


111.78 


102 06 


92.34 


77.76 


135 


124.2 


113.4 


102.6 


86.4 




5-00 


130.5 


120.06 


109.62 


99.18 


83.52 


145 


133-4 


121.8 


110.2 


92.8 




6200 


139.5 


128.34 


117.18 106.02 

! 


89.28 


155 


142.6 


130.2 


117.8 


99.2 



126 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



■Is 


22-inch Belt. 


24-inch Belt. 


1-3 or 


r-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


Mb or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


^ ^ 

> ^ 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


113140 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


1131/^0 


90° 


100 


2.75 


2.53 


2.31 


1 
2.09 1.76 


3 


2.76 


2.52 


2.28 


1.92 


200' 5.5 


5.06 


4.62 


4.18 


3.52 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 


300 8.25 


7.59 


6.93 


6.27 


5.28 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


400 11 


10.12 


9.24 


8.36 


7.04 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 


500, 13.75 12.65 


11.55 


10.45 1 8.8 


15 


13.8 


12.6 11.4 


9.6 


600 16.5 


15.18 


13.86 


12.541 10.56 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


700: 19.25 


17.71 


16.17 


14.63 


12.32 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


13.44 


8001 22 


20.24 


18.48 


16.72 


14.08 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 


900; 24.75 


22.77 


20.79 


18.81 


15.84 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


1000 27.5 


25.3 


23.1 


20.9 


17.6 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


1100 30.25 


27.83 


25.41 


22.99 


19.36 


33 


30.36 


27.72 25.08 


21.12 


1200 33 


30.36 


27.72 


25.08 


21.12 


36 


33.12 


30.24; 27.36 


23.04 


1300i 35.75 


32.89 


30.03 


27.17 


22.88 


39 


35.88 


32.76 1 29.64 


24.96 


1400 38.5 


35.42 


32.34; 29.26 


24.64 


42 


38.64 


35.28 ! 31.92 


26.88 


1500' 41.25 


37.95 


34.65 


33.35 


26.4 


45 


41.4 


37.8 34.2 


28.8 


1600; 44 


40.48 


36.96 


33.44 


28.16 


48 


44.16 


40.32 36.48 


30.72 


1700' 46.75 


43.01 


39.27 


35.53 


29.92 


51 


46.92 


42.84 38.76 


32.64 


1800: 49.5 


45.54 


41.58 


37.62 


31.68 


54 


49.68 


45.36 ; 41.04 


34.56 


1900 52.25 


48.07 


43.89 


39.71 


33.44 


57 


52.4 


47.88 1 43.32 


36.48 


2000; 55 


50.6 


46.2 


41.8 


35.2 


60 


55.52 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 


2100 57.75 


53.13 


48.5 


43.89 


36.96 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


22001 60.5 


55.66 


50.82 


45.98 


38.72 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 


2300 


63.25 


58.19 


53.13 


48.07 


40.48 


69 


63.48 


57.96 


52.44 


44.16 


2400 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 


72 


66.24 


60.48 I 54.72 


46.08 


2500 


68.75 


63.25 


57.75 


52.25 


44 


75 


69 


63 


57 


48 


2600 


71.5 


65.78 


60.06 


54.34 


45.76 


78 


71.76 


65.52 


59.28 


49.92 


2700 


74.25 


68.31 


62.37 


56.43 


47.52 


81 


74.52 


68.04 


61.56 


51.84 


2800 


77 


70.84 


64.68 


58.52 


49.28 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


53.76 


2900 


79.75 


73.37 


66.99 


60.61 


51.04 


87 


80.04 


73.08 


66.12 


55.68 


3000 


82.5 


75.9 


69.3 


62.7 


52.8 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 


3100 


85.25 


78.43 


71.61 


64.79 


54.56 


93 


85.56 


78.12 


70.68 


59.52 


3200| 88 


80.96 


73.92 


66.88 


56.32 


96 


88.32 


80.64 


72.96 


61.44 


3300i 90.75 


83.49 


76.23 


68.97 


58.08 


99 


91.08 


83.16 


75.24 


63.36 


3400 93.5 


86.02 


78.54 


71.06 


59.84 


102 


93.84 


85.68 


77.52 


65.28 


3500 96.25 


88.55 


80.85 


73.15 


61.6 


105 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 


3600 99 


91.08 


83.16 


75.24 


63.36 


108 


99.36 


90.72 


82.08 


69.12 


3700101.75 


93.61 


85.47 


77.33 


65.12 


111 


102.12 


93.24 


84.36 


71.04 


3800104.5 


96.14 


87.78 


79.42 


66.88 


114 


104.88 


95.76 


86.64 


72.96 


3900107.25 


98.67 


90.09 


81.51 


68.64 


117 


107.64 


98.28 


88.92 


74.88 


4000110 


101.2 


92.4 


83.6 


70.4 


120 


110.4 


100.8 


91.1 


76.8 


4200115.5 


106.26 


97.02 


87.78 


73.92 


126 


115.92 


105.84 


95.16 


80.64 


4400121 


111.32 


101.64 


91.96 


77.44 


132 


121.44 


110.88 '100.32 


84.48 


4600 


126.5 


116.38 


106.26 


96.14 


80.96 


138 


126.96 


115.92 


104.88 


88.32 


4800 


132 


121.44 


110.88 


100.32 


84.48 


144 


132.48 


120.96 


109.42 


92.16 


5000 


137.5 


126.5 


115.5 


104.5 


88 


150 


138 


126 


114 


96 


5400 


148.5 


136.62 


124.74 


112.86 


95.04 


162 


149.04 


136.16 


123.12 


104.68 


5800 


159.5 


144,74 


133.98 


121.22 


102.08 


174 


160.08 


146.32 


132.24 


112.36 


6200 


170.5 


156.86 


143.22 


129.58 


109.12 


186 


171.12 


156.48 


141.36 


116.04 



BELTING. 



127 



is 


26- 


inch Belt. 






28-inch Beit. 




1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 




180^ 


1571/2° 


135° 


1121/,° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


113^2° 


90° 


i 100 


3.25 


2.99 


2.73 


2.47 


2.08 


3.5 


3.22 


2.94 


2.66 


2.24 


! 200 6.5 


5.98 


5.46 


4.94 


4.16 


7 


6.44 


5.88 


5.32 


4.48 


! 300 9.75 


8.97 


8.19 


7.41 


6.24 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 


• 400 13 


11.96 


10.92 


9.88 


8.32 [■ 14 


12.88 


11.76 


10.64 


8.96 


1 500; 16.25 


14.95 


13.65 


12.35 


10.4 


17.5 


16.1 


14.7 


13.3 


11.2 


f 600| 19.5 


17.94 


16.38 


14.82 


12.48 


21 


19.32 


17.64 


15.96 


13.44 


. 700 1 22.75 


20.93 


19.11 


17.29 


14.56 


24.5 


22.54 


20.58 


18.62 


15.68 


i 800 


26 


23.92 


21.84 


19.76 


16.64 


28 


25.76 


23.52 


21.28 


17.92 


' 900 


29.25 


26.91 


24.57 


22.23 


18.72 


31.5 


28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


: 1000 


32.5 


29.9 


27.3 


24.7 


20.8 


35 


32.2 


29.4 


26.6 


22.4 


! 1100 


35.75 


32.89 


30.03 


27.17 


22.88 


j 38.5 


35.42 


32.34 


29.26 


24.64 


i 1200 


39 


35.88 


32.76 


29.64 


24.96 


! 42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


26.88 ■ 


; 1300 


42.25 


38.87 


35.49 


32.11 


27.04 


45.5 


41.86 


38.22 


34.58 


29.12 


1400 


45.5 


41.86 


38.22 


34.58 


29.12 


49 


45.08 


41.16 


37.24 


31.36 


1500 


48.75 


44.85 


40.95 


37.06 


31.2 


52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


.39.97 


33.6 


' 1600J 52 


47.84 


43.68 


39.52 


33.28 


56 


51.52 


47.04 


42.56 


35.84 


1700| 55.25 


50.83 


46.41 


41.99 


35.36 


59.5 


54.74 


49.98 


45.22 


38.08 


1800! 58.5 


53.82 


49.14 


44.46 


37.44 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


1900 


61.75 


56.81 


51.87 


46.93 


39.52 


66.5 


61.18 


55.86 


50.54 


42.56 


2000 


65 


59.8 


54.6 


49.4 


41.6 


70 


64.4 


58.8 


53.2 


44.8 


2100 


68.25 


62.79 


57.33 


51.87 


43.68 


73.5 


67.62 


61.74 


55.86 


47.04 


2200 


71.5 


65.78 


60.06 


54.34 


45.76 


77 


70.84 


64.68 


58.52 


49.28 


2300 


74.75 


68.77 


62.79 


56.81 


47.84 


80.5 


74.06 


67.62 


61.18 


51.52 


2400 


78 


71.76 


65.52 


59.28 


49.92 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


53.76 


2500| 81.25 


74.75 


68.25 


61.75 


52 


87.5 


80.5 


73.5 


66.5 


56 


2600 1 84.5 


77.74 


70.98 


64.22 


54.08 


91 


83.72 


76.44 


69.16 


58.24 


2700 


87.75 


80.73 


73.71 


66.69 


56.16 


94.5 


86.94 


79.38 


71.82 


60.48 


2800 


90 


83.72 


76.44 


69.16 


58.24 


98 


90.16 


82.32 


74.58 


62.72 


2900 


93.25 


86.71 


79.17 


71.63 


60.32 


101.5 


93.38 


85.26 


77.14 


64.96 


3000 


97.5 


89.7 


81.9 


74.1 


62.4 


105 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 


3100100.75 


91.69 


84.63 


76.57 


63.48 


109.5 


99.82 


91.14 


82.5 


69.44 


3200:104 


95.68 


87.36 


79.04 


66.56 


112 


103.04 


94.08 


85.12 


71.68 


3300:107.25 


98.67 


90.09 


81.51 


68.64 


115.5 


106.26 


97.02 


87.78 


73.92 


3400110.5 


101.66 


92.82 


83.98 


70.72 


119 


109.48 


99.96 


90.44 


76.16 


3500ill3.75 


104.65 


95.55 


86.45 


72.8 


122.5 


112.7 


102.9 


93.1 


78.4 


3600116 


107.64 


98.28 


89.92 


74.88 


126 


115.92 


105.84 


95.76 


80.64 


3700119.25 


110.63 


101.01 


92.39 


76.96 


129.5 


119.14 


108.78 


98.42 


82.9 


3800;123.5 


113.62 


103.74 


93.86 


79.04 


133 


122.36 


111.72 


101.08 


85.14 


3900126.75 


116.61 


106.47 


96.33 


81.12 


136.5 


125.58 


114.66 


103.74 


87.38 


4000130 


119.6 


109.2 


98.8 


83.2 


140 


128.8 


117.6 


106.4 


89.62 


4200 


136.5 


124.58 


114.66 


103.74 


87.36 


147 


135.24 


123.48 


111.62 


94.08 


4400 


143 


131.56 


120.12 


108.68 


91.52 


154 


141.68 


129.36 


117.04 


98.56 


4600 


148.5 


137.54 


125.58 


113.62 


95.68 


161 


148.12 


135.24 


122.36 


103.04 


4800 


156 


143.52 


131.04 


118.56 


99.84 


168 


154.56 


141.12 


127.68 


107.52 


5000 


162.5 


149.5 


136.5 


123.5 


104 


175 


161 


147 


133 


112 


5400 


175.5 


161.46 


147.42 


133.38 


112.32 


189 


173.88 


158.76 


143.64 


120.96 


5800 


186.5 


173.42 


158.34 


143.26 


120.64 


203 


186.76 


170.32 


154.28 


129.92 


6200 


201.5 


183.58 


169.26 


153.14 


128.92 


217 


199.64 


182.28 


164.92 


138.88 



128 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 





30-inch Belt. 


82-inch Belt. 


i 


1-2 or 


7-16 or| 3 8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-lfi or 


1-4 or 




1 e. 
> 


180° 


1571/2° 


.3.5° 


11314° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


mH° 


90° 




100 


3.75 


3.45 


3.15 


2.85 


2.4 


4 


3.68 


3.36 


3.04 


2.56 


■ 


200 


7.5 


6.9 


6.3 


5.7 


4.8 


8 


7.36 


6.72 


6.08 


5.12 


■ 


300 


11.25 


10.35 


9.45 


8.55 


7.2 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 




400 


15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 


16 


14.72 


13.44 


12.16 


10.24 




500 


18.75 


17.25 


15.75 


14.25 


12 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 




600 


22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.1 


14.4 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 


15.36 




700 


26.25 


24.15 


22.05 


19.85 


16.8 


28 


25.76 


23.52 


21.28 


17.92 




800 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 


32 


26.44 


26.88 


24.32 


20.48 




900 


33.75 


31.05 


28.35 


25.65 


21.6 


36 


33.12 


30.24 


27.36 


23.04 




1000 


37.5 


34.5 


31.5 


28.5 


24 


40 


36.8 


33.6 


30.4 


25.6 




1100 


41.25 


37.95 


34.65 


31.35 


26.4 


44 


40.48 


36.96 


33.44 


28.16 




1200 


45 


41.4 


37.8 


34.2 


28.8 


48 


44.16 


40.32 


36.48 


30.72 




1300 


48.75 


44.85 


40.95 


37.05 


31.2 


52 


47.84 


43.68 


39.52 


33.28 




1400 


52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


33.6 


56 


51.52 


47.04 


42.56 


35.84 




1500 


56.25 


51.75 


47.25 


42.75 


36 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 




1600 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 


64 


58.88 


53.76 


48.64 


40.96 




1700 


63.75 


58.65 


53.55 


48.45 


40.4 


68 


62.56 


57.12 


51.68 


43.52 




1800 


67.5 


62.1 


56.7 


51.3 


43.2 


72 


66.24 


60.48 


54.72 


46.08 




1900 


71.25 


65.55 


59.85 


54.15 


45.6 


76 


69.92 


63.84 


57.76 


48.64 




2000 


75 


60 


63 


57 


48 


80 


73.6 


67.2 


60.8 


51.2 




2100 


78.75 


72.45 


66.15 


59.85 


50.4 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


53.76 




2200 


82.5 


75.9 


69.3 


62.7 


52.8 


88 


80.96 


75.92 


66.88 


56.. 32 




2300 


86.25 


79.35 


72.45 


65.55 


55.2 


92 


84.64 


77.28 


69.92 


58.88 




2400 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 


96 


88.32 


80.64 


72.96 


61.44 




2500 


93.75 


86.25 


78.75 


71.25 


60 


100 


92 


84 


76 


64 




2600 


97.5 


89.7 


81.9 


74.1 


62.4 


104 


95.68 


87.36 


79.04 


66.56 




2700 


101.25 


93.15 


85.05 


76.95 


64.8 


108 


99.36 


90.72 


82.08 


69.12 




2800 


105 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 


112 


103.04 


94.08 


85.12 


71.68 




2900 


108.75 


100.05 


91.35 


82.65 


69.6 


116 


106.71 


97.44 


88.16 


74.24 




3000 


112.5 


103.5 


94.5 


85.5 


72 


120 


110.4 


100.8 


91.2 


76.8 




3100116.25 


106.95 


97.65 


88.35 


74.4 


124 


114.08 


104.16 


94.26 


79.36 


; 


3200 


120 


109.4 


100.8 


91.2 


76.8 


128 


117.76 


107.52 


97.28 


81.92 




3300 


123.75 


118.85 


103.95 


94.05 


79.2 


132 


121.44 


110.88 


100.32 


84.48 




3400 


127.5 


117.3 


107.1 


96.9 


81.6 


136 


123.12 


114.24 


103.36 


82.04 




3500 


131.25 


120.75 


110.25 


99.75 


84 


140 


128.8 


117.6 


106.4 


89.6 




3600 


135 


124.2 


113.4 


102.6 


86.4 


144 


132.48 


120.96 


109.44 


92.16 




3700 


138.75 


127.65 


116.55 


105.45 


88.8 


148 


136.16 


124.32 


112.48 


94.72 




3800 


142.5 


131.1 


119.7 


108.3 


91.2 


152 


139.84 


127.68 


115.52 


97.28 




3900 


146.25 


134.55 


122.85 


111.15 


93.6 


156 


143.52 


131.04 118.56 


99.84 




4000 


150 


138 


126. 


114 


96 


160 


147.2 


134.4 


121.6 


102.4 




4200 


157.5 


144.9 


132.3 


119.7 


100.8 


168 


154.56 


141.12 


127.68 


107.52 




4400 


165 


151.8 


138.6 


125.4 


105.6 


176 


161.92 


147.84 


133.76 


112.64 




4600 


172.5 


158.7 


144.9 


131.1 


110.4 


184 


169.28 


154.56 


139.84 


117.76 




4800 


180 


165.6 


151.2 


136.8 


115.2 


192 


176.64 


161.28 


145.92 


122.88 


' 


5000 


187.5 


172.5 


157.5 


142.5 


120 


200 


184 


168 


152 


128 




5400 


202.5 


186.3 


170.1 


153.9 


129.6 


216 


198.72 


181.44 


164.16 


138.24 




5800 


217.5 


200.1 


182.7 


165.3 


139.2 


232 


213.44 


194.88 


176.32 


148.48 




6200 


232.5 


213.9 


195.3 


176.7 


148.8 


248 


228.16 


208.32 


188.48 


158.72 





BELTlNGf. 



129 





34-inch Belt. 


36-inch Belt. 


1-3 or 7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


.5-16 or 


1-4 or 


^ p- 


180° 1571/2° 


135° 


1131/2° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


13.5° 


1131/2° 


90° 


100 


1 
4.25 3.91 


3.-57 1 3.23 


2.72 


4.5 


4.14 


3.78 


3.42 


2.88 


200 


8.5 7.82 


7.14 i 6.46 


5.44 


9 


8.28 


7.56 


6.84 


5.76 


300 


12.75 


11.73 


10.71 1 9.69 ; 8.16 


13.5 


12.42 


11.34 


10.26 


8.64 


400 


17 


15.64 


14.28 i 12.92 


10.88 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 


11.52 


500 


21.25 


19.55 


17.85 


16.15 


13.6 


22.5 


20.7 


18.9 


17.1 


14.4 


600 


25.5 i 23.46 


21.42 


19.38 


16.32 


27 


24.84 


22.68 


20.52 


17.28 


700 


29.75 ! 27.37 


24.99 


22.61 


19.04 


31.5 


28.98 ! 26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


800 


34 j 31.28 


28.-56 ' 25.84 ' 21.76 


36 


.33.12 30.24 


27.36 


23.04 


900 


38.25 1 35.19 | 32.13 ' 29.07 : 24.48 


40.5 


37.26 34.02 


30.78 


25.92 


1000 


42.5 ; 39.1 , 35.70 32.3 i 27.2 


45 


41.4 ! 37.8 


34.2 


28.8 


1100 


46.75 43.01 


39.27 35.53 


29.92 


49.5 


45.-54 : 41.58 


37.62 


31.68 


1200 


51 46.92 


42.84 38.76 


32.64 


54 


49.68 45.36 


41.04 


34.56 


1300 


55.25 50.83 


46.41 41.99 


35.36 


58.5 


53.82 49.14 


44.46 


37.44 


1400 


59.5 t 54.74 


49.98 1 45.22 


38.08 


63 


57.96 ; 52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


1500 


63.75 j 58.65' 53.55 ^ 48.45 


40.8 


67.5 


62.1 ; 56.7 


51.3 


43.2 


1600 


68 62.-56 


,57.12 1 .51.68 


43.52 


72 


66.24 i 60.48 


54.72 


46.08 


1700 


72.25 1 66.47 


60.69! 54,91 


46.24 


76.5 


70.38 i 64.26 


58.14 


48.96 


il800 


76.5 70.38 


64.26' 58.14 I 48.96 


81 


74.52 1 68.04 


61.56 


51.84 


1900 


80.75 74.29 


67.83 ' 61.37 1 51.68 


85.5 


78.66 ' 71.82 


64.98 


54.72 


2000! 85 ' 78.2 j 71.4 64.6 i 54.4 


1 90 


82.8 1 75.6 i 68.4 


57.6 


21001 89.25 


82.11 


74.97 ; 67.83 57.12 


' 94.5 


86.94 79.38 ! 71.82 


60.48 


12200 


93.5 


86.02 


78.54 i 71.06 


59.84 


99 


91.08 83.16 


75.24 


63.36 


2300 


97.75 


89.93 


82.11 74.29 


62.56 


103.5 


95.22 86.94 


78.66 


66.24 


2400 


102 


93.84 


85.68 77.52 


65.28 


108 


99.36 [ 90.72 


82.08 


69.12 


2500 


106.25 1 97.75 


89.25 i 80.75 


68.72 


112.5 


103.5 ! 94.5 


85.5 


72 


2600 


110.5 101.66 


92.82 1 83.98 i 70.72 


117 


107.64 1 98.28 


88.92 


74.88 


2700 114.75 il05.57 


96.39 I 87.21 | 73.44 


121.5 


111.78 


102.06 


92.34 


77.76 


2800119 |109.48 


99.96 1 90.44 ^ 76.16 


126 


115.92 


105.84 


95.72 


80.64 


2900123.25 I113..39 103.53 : 93.67 78.88 


130.5 


120.06 


109.62 


99.18 


83.52 


3000J127.5 :117.3 !l07.1 ; 96.9 i 81.6 


135 


124.2 


113.4 


102.6 


86.4 


3100 


131.75 1121.21 illO.67 100.13 


84.32 


139.5 


128.34 


117.18 


106.02 


89.28 


3200 


136 124.12 1114.24 103.36 


87.04 


144 


132.48 


120.96 


109.44 


92.16 


33001140.25 129.03 :117.81 106.59 


89.76 


148.5 


136.62 


124.74 


112.86 


95.04 


3400144.5 ,132.94 121.38 109.82 


92.48 


153 


140.76 


128.52 


116.28 


97.92 


3500 148.75 1136.85 [124.95 113.05 i 95.2 


157.5 


144.9 


132.3 


119.7 


100.8 


3600 153 ;140.76 1128.52 ill6.28 1 97.92 


162 


149.04 


136.08 


123.12 


103.68 


3700 


157.25 144.67 132.09 119.51 :100.64 


166.5 


153.18 


139.86 


126.54 


106.56 


3800 


161.5 148.58 135.66 122.74 103.36 


171 


157.32 


143.64 


129.96 


109.44 


3900165.75 152.49 139.23 125.97 106.08 ! 


175.5 


161.46 


147.42 133.38 jll2.32 


4000170 156.4 142.8 129.2 ;108.8 


180 


165.6 


1-51.2 136.8 115.2 


4200178.5 164.22 


149.94 13,5.66 114.24 ; 


189 


173.88 


158.76 !143.64 


120.96 


4400187 172.04 


1-57.08 1142.12 ,119.68 


198 


182.16 


166.32 !150.48 


126.72 


4600195.5 179.86 


164.22,148.58 125.12! 


207 


190.44 


173.88 :i-57.32 


132.48 


48001204 187.68 171.36 155.04 130.56 


216 


198.72 


181.44 


164.16 


138.24 


5000:212.5 il95.5 1178.5 161.5 136 


225 


207 


189 


171 


144 


5400,229.5 ;221.14 192.78 174.42 |146.88 


243 


223.56 


204.12 


184.68 


155.52 


58001246.5 236.17 207.06 187.34 157.76 


261 


240.12 


219.24 


198.36 


167.04 


6200^263.5 252.42 221.34 200.26 168.64 


279 


256.68 


234.36 212.04 178.56 



10 



130 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 





38-inch Belt. 


40--inch Belt. 




1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 




•2S 


180°. 


157%° 


135° 


112%° 


90° 


180° 


i57y2° 


135° 


112%° 


90° 




100 


4.75 


4.37 


3.99 


3.61 


3.04 


5 


4.6 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 




200 


9.5 


8.74 


7.98 


7.22 


6.08 


10 


9.2 


8.4 


7.6 


6.4 




300 


14.25 


13.11 


11.97 


10.83 


9.12 


15 


13.8 


12.6 


11.4 


9.6 




400 


19 


17.48 


15.96 


14.44 


12.16 


20 


18.4 


16.8 


15.2 


12.8 




500 


23.75 


21.85 


19.95 


18.05 


15.2 


25 


23 


21 


19 


16 




600 


28.5 


26.22 


23.94 


21.66 


18.24 


30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 


19.2 




700 


33.25 


30.59 


27.93 


25.27 


21.28 


35 


32.2 


29.4 


26.6 


22.4 




800 


38 


34.96 


31.92 


28.38 


24.32 


40 


36.8 


33.6 


30.4 


25.6 




900 


42.75 


39.33 


35.91 


32.49 


27.36 


45 


41.4 


37.8 


34.2 


28.8 




1000 


47.5 


43.7 


39.9 


36.1 


30.4 


50 


46 


42 


38 


32 




1100 


52.25 


48.07 


43.89 


39.71 


33.44 


55 


50.6 


46.2 


41.8 


35.2 




1200 


57 


52.44 


47.88 


43.32 


36.48 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 




1300 


61.75 


56.81 


51.87 


46.93 


39.52 


65 


59.8 


54.6 


49.4 


41.6 




1400 


66.5 


61.18 


55.86 


50.54 


42.56 


70 


64.4 


58.8 


53.2 


44.8 




1500 


71.25 


65.55 


59.85 


54.15 


45.6 


75 


69 


63 


57 


48 




1600 


76 


69.92 


63.84 


57.76 


48.64 


80 


73.6 


67.2 


60.8 


51.2 




1700 


80.75 


74.29 


67.83 


61.37 


51.68 


85 


78.2 


71.4 


64.6 


54.4 




1800 


85.5 


78.66 


71.82 


64.98 


54.72 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 




1900 


90.25 


83.03 


75.81 


68.59 


57.76 


95 


87.4 


79.8 


72.2 


60.8 




2000 


95 


87.4 


79.8 


72.2 


60.8 


100 


92 


84 


76 


64 




2100 


99.75 


91.77 


83.79 


75.81 


63.84 


135 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 




2200 


104.5 


96.14 


87.78 


79.42 


66.88 


110 


101.2 


92.4 


83.6 


70.4 




2300 


109.25 


100.51 


91.77 


83.03 


69.92 


115 


105.8 


96.6 


87.4 


73.6 




2400 


114 


104.88 


95.76 


86.64 


72.96 


120 


110.4 


100.8 


91.2 


76.8 




2500 


118.75 


109.25 


99.75 


90.25 


76 


125 


115 


105 


95 


80 




2600 


123.5 


113.62 


103.74 


93.86 


79.04 


130 


119.6 


109.2 


98.8 


83.2 




2700 


128.25 


117.99 


107.73 


97.47 


82.08 


135 


124.2 


113.4 


102.6 


86.4 




2800 


133 


122.36 


111.72 


101.08 


85.12 


140 


128.8 


117.6 


106.4 


89.6 




2900 


137.75 


126.73 


115.71 


104.69 


88.16 


145 


133.4 


121.8 


110.2 


92.8 




3000 


142.5 


131.1 


119.7 


108.3 


91.2 


150 


138 


126 


114 


96 




3100 


147.25 


135.47 


123.69 


111.91 


94.24 


155 


142.6 


130.2 


117.8 


99.2 




3200 


152 1139.84 


127.68 


115.52 


97.28 


160 


147.2 


134.4 


121.6 


102.4 




3300 


156-75 


144.21 


131.67 


119.13 


100.32 


165 


1.51.8 


138.6 


125.4 


105.6 




3400 


161.5 


148.58 


135.66 


122.74 


103.36 


170 


156.4 


142.8 


129.2 


108.8 




3500 


166.25 


152.95 


139.65 


126.35 


106.4 


175 


161 


147 


133 


112 




3600 


171 ■ 


157.32 


143.64 


129.96 


109.44 


180 


165.6 


151.2 


136.8 


115.2 




3700 


175.75 


161.69 


147.63 


133.57 


112.48 


185 


170.2 


155.4 


140.6 


118.4 




3800 


180.5 


166.06 


151.62 


137.18 


115.52 


190 


174.8 


159.6 


144.4 


121.6 




3900 


185.25 


170.43 


155.61 


140.79 


118.56 


195 


179.4 


163.8 


148.2 


124.8 




4000 


190 


174.8 


159.6 


144.4 


121.6 


200 


184 


168 


152 


128 




4200 


199.5 


183.54 


167.58 il51. 62 


127.68 


210 


193.2 


176.4 


159.6 


134.4 




4400 


209 


192.8 


175..56 ;158.84 


133,76 


220 


202.4 


184.8 


167.2 


140.8 




4600 


218.5 


201.02 


183.54 


166.06 


139.84 


230 


211.6 


193.2 


174.8 


147.2 




4800 


228 


209.76 


191.52 


173.28 


145.92 


240 


220.8 


201.6 


182.4 


153.6 




5000 


237.5 


218.5 


199.5 


180.5 


152 


250 


230 


210 


190 


160 




5400 


256.5 


235.98 


215.46 


194.94 


164.16 


270 


248.4 


226.8 


205.2 


172.8 




5800 


275.5 


253.46 


231.42 


209.38 


176.32 


290 


266.8 


243.6 


220.4 


185.6 




6200 


294.5 


270.94 


247.38 


223.82 


188.48 


310 


285.2 


260.4 


235.6 


198.4 





BELTING. 



131 



is 

o Si 


42-inch Belt. 


44-inch Belt. 


1-2 or 


T-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


> 


180° 


157/2° 


135° 


1121/2° 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


112^° 


90° 


100 


5.25 


4.83 


4.41 


3.99 


3.36 


5.5 


5.06 


4.62 


4.18 


3.52 


200 


10.5 


9.66 


8.82 


7.98 


6.72 


11 


10.12 


9.24 


8.36 


7.04 


300 15.75 


14.49 


13.23 


11.97 


10.08 


16.5 


15.18 


13.86 


12.54 


10.56 


400 


21 


19.32 17.64 


15.96 


18.44 


22 


20.24 


18.48 


16.72 


14.08 


500 


26.25 


24.15 


22.05 


19.85 


16.8 


27.5 


25.3 


23.1 


20.9 


17.6 


600 


31.5 


28.98 


26.46 


23.94 


20.16 


33 


30.36 


27.72 


25.08 


21.12 


700 


36.75 


33.81 


30.89 


27.93 


23.52 


38.5 


35.42 


32.34 


29.26 


24.64 


800 


42 


38.64 


35.28 


31.92 


26.88 


44 


40.48 


36.96 


33.44 


28.16 


900 


47.25 


43.47 


39.69 


35.91 


30.24 


49.5 


45.54 


41.58 


37.62 


31.68 


1000 


52.5 


48.3 


44.1 


39.9 


33.6 


55 


50.6 


46.2 


41.8 


35.2 


1100 


57.75 


53.13 


48.51 


43.89 


36.96 


60.5 


55.66 


50.82 


45.98 


38.72 


1200 


63 


57.96 


52.92 


47.88 


40.32 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 


1300 


68.25 


62.79 


57.33 


51.87 


43.68 


71.5 


65.78 


60.06 


54.34 


45.76 


1400 


73.5 


67.62 


61.74 


55.86 


47.04 


77 


70.84 


64.68 


58.52 


49.28 


1500 


78.75 


72.45 


66.15 


59.85 


50.4 


82.5 


75.9 


69.3 


62.7 


52.8 


1600 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84 


53.76 


88 


80.96 


73.92 


66.88 


56.32 


1700 


89.25 


82.11 


74.97 


67.83 


57.12 


93.5 


86.02 


78.54 


71.06 


59.84 


1800 


94.5 


86.94 


79.38 


71.82 


60.48 


99 


91.08 


83.16 


75.24 


63.36 


19001 99.75 


91.77 


83.79 


75.81 


63.84 


104.5 


96.14 


87.78 


79.42 


66.88 


2000 


105 


96.6 


88.2 


79.8 


67.2 


110 


101.2 


92.4 


83.6 


70.4 


2100 


110.25 


101.43 


92.61 


83.79 


70.56 


115.5 


106.26 


97.02 


87.78 


73.92 


2200 


115.5 


106.26 


97.02 


-87.78 


73.92 


121 


111.32 


101.64 


91.96 


77.44 


2300 


120.75 


111.09 


101.43 


91.77 


77.28 


126.5 


116.38 


106.26 


96.14 


80.96 


2400 


126 


115.92 


105.84 


95.76 


80.64 


132 


121.44 


110.88 


100.32 


84.48 


2500 


131.25 


120.75 


110.25 


99.75 


84 


137.5 


126.5 


115.5 


104.5 


88 


2600 


136.5 


125.58 


114.66 


103.74 


87.36 


143 


131.56 


120.12 


108.68 


91.52 


2700 


141.75 


130.41 


119.07 


107.73 


90.72 


148.5 


136.62 


124.74 


112.86 


95.04 


2800 


147 


135.24 


123.48 


111.72 


94.08 


154 


141.68 


129.36 


117.04 


98.56 


2900 


152.25 


140.07 


127.89 


115.71 


97.44 


159.5 


146.74 


133.98 


121.22 


102.08 


3000 


157.5 


144.9 


132.3 


119.7 


100.8 


165 


151.8 


138.6 


125.4 


105.6 


3100 


162.75 


149.73 


136.71 


123.69 


104.16 


170.5 


156.86 


143.22 


129.58 


109.12 


3200 


168 


154.56 


141.12 


127.68 


107.52 


176 


161.92 


147.84 


133.76 


112.64 


3300 


173.25 


159.39 


145.53 


131.67 


110.88 


181.5 


166.98 


152.46 


137.94 


116.16 


3400 178.5 


164.22 


149.94 


135.66 


114.24 


187 


172.04 


157.08 


142.12 


119.68 


3500il83.75 


169.05 


154.35 


139.65 


117.6 


192.5 


177.1 


161.7 


146.3 


123.2 


36001189 


173.88 


158.76 


143.64 


120.96 


198 


182.16 


166.32 


150.48 


126.72 


3700il94.25 


178.71 


163.17 


147.63 


124.32 


203.5 


187.22 


170.94 


154.66 


130.24 


3800 


199.5 


183.54 


167.58 


151.62 


127.68 


209 


192.28 


175.56 


158.84 


133.76 


3900 


204.75 


188.37 


171.99 


155.61 


131.94 


214.5 


197.34 


180.18 


163.02 


137.28 


4000 


210 


193.2 


176.4 


159.6 


134.4 


220 


202.4 


184.8 


167.2 


140.8 


4200 


220.5 


202.86 


185.22 


167.58 


141.12 


231 


212.52 


194.04 


175.56 


147.84 


4400 


231 


212.52 


194.04 


175.56 


147.84 


242 


222.64 


203.28 


183.92 


154.88 


4600 


241.5 


222.18 


202.86 


183.54 


154.56 


253 


232.76 


212.52 


192.28 


161.92 


4800 


252 


231.84 


211.68 


191.52 


161.28 


264 


242.88 


221.76 


200.64 


168.96 


5000 


262.5 


241.5 


220.5 


199.5 


168 


275 


253 


231 


209 


175 


5400 


283.5 


260.82 


238.14 


215.46 


181.44 


297 


273.24 


249.48 


221.54 


189.08 


5800 


304.5 


280.14 


255.78 


231.42 


194.88 


319 


293.48 


267.96 


234.08 


203.16 


6200 


325.5 


299.46 


273.42 


247.38 


208.32 


341 


310.72 


286.44 


246.62 


217.24 



132 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



1^ 


46-inch Belt. 




48-inch Bell. 




1-2 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 


1-3 or 


7-16 or 


3-8 or 


5-16 or 


1-4 or 






180° 


1.57%° 


135° 


my^o 


90° 


180° 


1571/2° 


135° 


1131/2° 


90° 




100 


5.75 


5.29 


4.83 1 4.37 


3.68 


6 


5.52 


5.04 


4.56 


3.84 




200 


11.5 


10.58 


9.66 


8.74 


7.86 


12 


11.04 


10.08 


9.12 


7.68 




300 


17.25 


15.87 


14.49 


13.11 


11.04 


18 


16.56 


15.12 


13.68 i 11.52 




400 


23 


21.16 


19.32 


17.48 


14.72 


24 


22.08 


20.16 


18.24 i 15.36 




500 


28.75 


26.45 


24.15 


21.85 


18.4 


j 30 


27.6 


25.2 


22.8 i 19.2 




600 


34.5 


31.74 


28.98 


26.22 


22.08 


36 


33.12 


30.24 


27.36 23.04 




700 


40.25 


37.03 


33.81 


30.59 


25.76 


42 


38.64 


85.28 


31.92 26.88 




800 


46 


42.32 


38.64 


34.96 


29.44 


48 


44.16 


40.32 


36.48 30.72 




900 


51.75 


47.61 


43.47 


39.33 


33.12 


54 


49.68 


45.36 


41.04 


34.56 




1000 


57.5 


52.9 


48.3 


43.7 


36.8 


60 


55.2 


50.4 


45.6 


38.4 




1100 


63.25 


58.19 ! 53.13 


48.07 


40.48 


66 


60.72 


55.44 


50.16 


42.24 




1200 


69 


63.48! 57.96 


52.44 


44.16 


72 


66.24 


60.48 


54.72 


46.08 




1300 


74.75 


68.77 


62.79 


56.81 


47.84 


78 


71.76 


65.52 


59.28 


49.92 




1400 


80.5 


74.06 


67.62 


61.18 


51.52 


84 


77.28 


70.56 


63.84! 53.76 1 




1500 


86.25 


79.35 


72.45 


65.55 


55.2 


90 


82.8 


75.6 


68.4 


57.6 




1600 


92 


84.66 


77.28 


69.92 


58.88 


96 


88.32 


80.64 


72.96 


61.44 




1700 


97.75 


89.93 


82.11 


74.29 


62.56 


102 


93.84 


85.68 


77.52 


65.28 




1800 


103.5 


95.22 


86.94 


78.66 


66.24 


108 


99.36 


90.72 


82.08 


69.12 




1900 


109.25 


100.51 


91.77 


83.03 


69.92 


114 


104.88 


95.76 


86.64 • 72.96 f 




2000 


115 


105.8 


96.6 


87.4 


73.6 i 


120 


110.4 


100.8 


91.2 


76.8 




2100 


120.75 


111.09 


101.43 


91.77 


77.28 


126 


115.92 


105.84 


95.76 


80.64 




2200 


126.5 


116.38 


106.26 


96.14 


80.96 


132 


121.44 


110.88 


100.32 


84.48 




2300 


132.25 


121.67 


111.09 


100.51 


84.64 


138 


126.96 


115.92 


104.88 


«8.32 




2400 


138 


126.96 


115.92 


104.88 


88.32 1 


144 


132.48 


120.96 


109.52 


92.16 




2500 


143.75 


132.25 


120.75 


109.25 


92 [ 


150 


138 


126 


114 


96 




2600 


149.5 


137.54 


125.58 


113.62 


95.68 1 


156 


143.52 


131.04 


118.56 


99.84 




2700 


155.25 


142.83 


130.41 


117.99 


99.36 


162 


149.04 


136.08 


123.12 


103.68 




2800 


161 


148.12 


135.24 


122.36 


103.04 


168 


154.56 


141.12 


127.68 


107.52 




2900 


166.75 


153.41 


140.07 


126.73 


106.72 


174 


160.08 


146.16 


132.24 


111.36 




3000 


172.5 


158.7 


144.9 


131.1 


110.4 


180 


165.6 


151.2 


136.8 


115.2 




3100 


178.25 


162.99 


149.73 


135.47 


114.08 


186 


171.12 


156.24 


141.36 


119.04 




3200 


184 


169.28 


154.56 


139.84 


117.76 


192 


176.64 


161.28 


145.92 


122.88 




3300 


189.75 


174.57 


159.39 


144.21 


121.44 1 


198 


182.16 


166.32 


150.48 


126.72 




3400 


195.5 


179.86 


164.22 


148.58 


125.12 1 


204 


187.68 


171.86 


1.55.04 


130.56 




3500 


201.25 


185.15 


169.05 


152.95 


128.8 1 


210 


193.2 


176.4 


159.6 


134.4 




3600 


207 


190.44 


173.88 


157.32 


132.48 ' 


216 


198.72 


181.44 


164.16 


138.24 




3700 


212.75 


195.73 


178.71 


161.69 


136.16' 


222 


204.24 


186.48 


168.72 


142.08 




3800 


218.5 


201.02 


183.54 


166.06 


139.84 


228 


209.76 


191.52 


173.28 


145.92 




3900 


224.25 


206.31 


188.37 


170.43 


143.52 


234 


215.28 


196.56 


177.84 


149.76 




4000 


230 


211.6 


193.2 


174.8 


147.2 


240 


220.8 


201.6 


182.4 


153.6 




4200 


241.5 


222.18 


202.86 


183.54 


154.56 


252 


281.84 


211.68 


191.52 


161.28 




4400 


253 


232.76 


212.52 


192.2S 


161.92 


264 


242.88 


221.76 


200.64 


168.96 




4600264.5 


243.34 


222.18 


201.02 


169.28 


276 


258.92 


231.84 


209.76 


176.64 




4800 


276 


253.92 


231.84 


209.76 


176.64 


288 


266.96 


241.92 


218.88 


184.32 




5000 


287.5 


265.3 


241.5 


218.5 


184 


300 


276 


252 


228 


192 




-S400 


310.5 


285.66 


260.82 


235.98 


198.72 


324 


298.08 


272.16 


246.24 


207.36 




5800 


333.5 


306.82 


280.14 


253.46 


213 44 


348 


320.16 


292.32 


264.48 


222.72 




6200 


356.5 


325.98 


299.46 


270.94 


228.16 


372 


342.32 


812.48 


282.72 


238.08 





ARTICLE XV. 



SHAFTING SOME TABLES FOR DETERMINING THE HORSE-POWER 

THAT CAN BE TRANSMITTED BY SHAFTING OF DIFFERENT 
SIZES AND AT DIFFERENT SPEEDS. 

In order to the more readily determine the horse-power 
that can be safelj^ transmitted by different sized shafting, 
running at different velocities, we have prepared a table by 
which the millwright can tell at a glance just what he wants. 
These tables are prepared with the view of resistance to tor- 
sion, without reference to transverse strain. To produce 
results in harmony with the table, the shafting should be 
well put up, in perfect line, and good bearings at reasonable 
intervals; and for fast moving shafts, the pulleys and wheels 
should be well balanced. For prime movers, such as en- 
gine crank-shafts, and others, that have to be burdened 
with heavy wheels, there should be at least one-third added 
to the strength by having the shaft much heavier in pro- 
portion. 

Some experimenters ■with shafting have declared, logi- 
cally, we think, small shafts are less liable to fracture on ac- 
count of torsional twist than large ones, for the reason of 
their greater elasticity, for this reason: that when shafts 
are used for transmitting power alone, and not required to 
carry any considerable amount of weight in the way of 
heavy gearing or pulleys, the sizes given in the table should 
never be exceeded. We have purposely dropped off the 
heavy shafting as we advanced in velocity, for the reason that 
very heavy shafts are not required to run at high rates of 
speed. 



134 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



o 



I IM (M CO -^ '^ 00 : 



C- ^ 00 lO '^l 00 (M 00 

itoc~i-5i-oooc-iocDOCTit~^ 

lT-(THfN(MCOCO-TfHlOOOOOCOO 
i-H i-H (M 



lO ^ (M lO 

t~ CO W t~ O 1— I t- 



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PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDINGt. 



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SHAFTIXG. 



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138 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



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SHAFTING. 



139 



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140 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING 



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SHAFTING. 



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PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BtJILDlMCf. 



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1 






ARTICLE XVI. 



SOME USEFUL RULES AND OTHER INFORMATION OF A 
SPECIFIC CHARACTER. 

The following rules for calculating the sizes, speeds, etc., 
of pulleys and gear-wheels, and accompanying remarks, will 
be found useful and instructive: 

The diameter and revolutions of first drker and last dvireii 
being given, to find the diameters of pulleys for intermediate 
shaft. 

Rule. — First multiply the revolutions of the driver by its 
diameter ; then for the intermediate drirejt pulley, take any 
diameter, (say one-half the diameter of first driver,) and 
divide the product by it; the quotient gives the revolutions 
of intermediate pulleys. Second. Multiply the revolutions 
of last driven by its diameter and divide the product by the 
revolutions of intermediate pulleys ; the quotient is the diam- 
eter of the intermediate driving pulley. 

As an example, it will be required to find the diameter of 
driven pulley on an intermediate counter-shaft for driving a 
smutter, making 600 revolutions and having an 8-inch pulley; 
the leading shaft makes 150 revolutions per minute, and has 
a 24-inch pulley. 

, The rule says to first multiply the speed of the leading 
shaft by the diameter of the pulley, which, in this case, is 
150 multiplied by 24 equals 3600; then select, by the judg- 
ment, a diameter for the driven pulley on the intermediate 
counter-shaft; in this case, for a trial, the half-diameter of the 
driver, or 12 inches as the diameter of the driven, which we 
divide into the result obtained above, thus : 3600 divided by 
12 equals 300, the speed of the intermediate shaft and pulley. 



144 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

The rule says, second, to multiply tlie speed of the last 
driven, or in other words, the smutter, by the diameter of 
the pulley on it, and divide the product by the revolutions 
of the intermediate shaft, which would be 600 multiplied by 
8 divided by 300 equals 16. The last result being the 
diameter of the second driving pulley. Or, the whole oper- 
ation is stated and performed simply in this way : 



150 X 24 -^ 12 = 300. 




600 X 8 -^ 300 = 16. 




150 
24 


600 
8 


600 
300 


300 ) 4800 ( 16 
300 


12 ) 3600 ( 300 


1800 
1800 



It is not often in practice that a problem of this kind is 
so easy of solution; the extremes are generally wider apart, 
as, for instance, it is not uncommon to have to get up speed 
for a smutter, separator, or other fast running machines, off a 
shaft making not over sixty revolutions per minute, or even 
less. In such a case, judgment must be exercised, and care 
taken not to get too great a disproportion in sizes of pulleys 
and speeds. It is evident that when the first motion is very 
slow, the driven pulley on the counter-shaft cannot be half 
the size of the first driver, otherwise the second driver will 
be much too large. The chief value of an intermediate 
shaft is to increase speed gradually and prevent too great a 
difierence between the sizes of drivers and driven. 

The proportions can be obtained and maintained exactly 
by observing the following rule and notes : 

Rule. — When it is desired to find the speed of an inter- 
mediate shaft, the extreme speeds being given, divide the 
lower speed into the greater, extract the square root of the 
product, and either multiply the first speed by it or divide 
the last speed by it; the result will be the speed of the inter- 
mediate shaft required. 




BARNARD^S OAT AND WEED EXTRACTOR SEPARATOR 



Made by BARNARD & LEAS MFG. CO., Moline, III. 

(See Appendix,) 



SHAFTING. 145 

As a test of the rule we will take the previous example. 
Wliat should be the speed of the counter-shaft, the main 
driving shaft making 150 revolutions, and the smutter 600? 
Six hundred divided by 150, results in four times; the square 
root of four is two; then 150 multiplied by 2, equals 300, 
or 600 divided by 2 equals 300; the speed of center shaft 
required and the speed obtained by the other process. 

To still further illustrate, we will suppose it necessary to 
obtain a speed of 1350 by the use of an intermediate shaft 
from a first mover making 150 revolutions per minute. 
Thirteen hundred and fifty divided by 150 results in nine 
times; the square root of nine is three; then 150 multiplied 
by 3, equals 450, or, 1350 divided by 3, equals 450, the speed 
of intermediate shaft required. This method, when it can 
be resolved into an easy problem, simplifies the whole ques- 
tion, because the same root or figure can be used for obtain- 
ing the size of pulleys required. To get the diameter of 
the first driven pulley on the counter-shaft, divide; to get 
the size of second driver, multiply. Thus, suppose the first 
driving pulley was forty-eight inches in diameter, and the 
last driven pulley ten inches in diameter, then 48 divided by 
3, equals 16 inches, diameter of first driven, and 10 multi- 
plied by 3, equals 30 inches, diameter of second driver. 

The objection to this mode of calculating is that divid- 
ing one speed into another, the result in practice is rarely 
ever even. In such cases obtaining the square root is not so 
easy. Many of our mechanics are plain, practical men, of 
great worth, but who, if they did learn anything about ex- 
tracting roots in their school days, have long since forgotten 
all about it, and do not care to be bothered with it. Still we 
would say that in our judgment it would be a great saving 
to all of them if they would spare time and exercise patience 
enough to learn how to solve these shafting problems as 
here indicated. We very earnestly urge this upon young 
men and apprentices. 

The introduction of two intermediate or counter-shafts 
is sometimes necessary. To get the speeds of these shafts 

12 



146 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

the lesser speed must be divided into the greater as before, 
and the cube root of this result extracted. By this root the 
speed of the first driver must be multiplied to get the speed 
of the first counter-shaft, and the last speed divided by the 
same figure to get the speed of the second counter; or, the 
speed of first counter can be multiplied by the root, and the 
result will be the speed of the second counter. 

As an example. Required: to obtain the speed of two 
intermediate shafts, the speed of the first mover being 50 
revolutions per minute, and the last 1350. Thirteen hun- 
dred and fifty divided by 50, results in 27. The cube root 
of 27 is 3; then 50 multiplied by 3 ,equals 150, speed of first 
counter-shaft; and 1350 divided by 3, equals 450, speed of 
second counter-shaft. As the speeds are three to one all the 
way through, so also will the pulleys be three to one; that is 
to say, each driving pulley will have three times the diam- 
eter of its driven. 

When three intermediate shafts are used, the one ex- 
treme must be divided into the other, as before, and the 
square root taken twice, or the square root of the square 
root, when the same mode of multiplying and dividing, as in 
the other cases, must be followed. It would be well to 
notice here that in putting up a series of shafts for getting 
up speed, the pulleys for the first belt should be relatively 
larger than for the next, or in other words, as the speed 
increases the pulleys may be relatively smaller. This is done 
to make the belt on the slower motions travel as fast as 
possible, as on the speed of the belt its transmitting power 
depends chiefly. There need not then be so much dififer- 
ence in the width of the belts; although, of course, as the 
speed increases, the belts may be narrowed, or as speed de- 
creases belts must be widened in order to produce the 
desired result. 

It is now desired (the speed of the first mover, the num- 
ber of mover and the size of pulleys being given,) to ascer- 
tain the speed of the last mover. 



SHAFTING. 147 

Rule. — Multiply the diameters of all the driving pulleys 
together, and that product by the speed of the first mover; 
then multiply the diameters of all the driven pulleys together, 
and divide the product into the sums of the others. 

Example — Required: the speed of the last shaft in a 
train of four shafts. The speed of the first mover being 150 
revolutions per minute, and the size of the first driver 20 
inches in diameter, the second 16, and the third 12. The 
diameter of the first driven is 12 inches, the second 10, and 
the third 8. 

Solution — 20 multiplied by 16 multiplied by 12 multi- 
plied by 150, equals 576,000; 16 multiplied by 12 multiplied 
by 8, equals 960. 

960 ) 576000 ( 600 
5760 



00 

Six hundred, the last result obtained, is the speed of the 
last shaft required. 

To find the number of revolutions a counter-shaft will 
make, the speed of the driving shaft, the diameter of the 
driving and driven pulleys being given, the following rule 
may be adopted : 

Rule. — Multiply the number of revolutions of driving 
shaft by the diameter of the driving pulley, and divide by 
the diameter of driven pulley. 

To obtain the size of driven pulley, the speed of dri^dng 
shaft and the size of driving pulley being given, the above 
rule will be changed to read thus : 

Rule. — Multiply the velocity of the driving pulley by 
its diameter, and divide the product by the number of revo- 
lutions it is desired the counter-shaft should make, and the 
result will be the diameter of the driven pulley required. 

To ascertain the size of the driving pulley, its speed and 
the size of driven pulley being known, observe the following 
rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of driven pulley by the 
number of revolutions it is desired it should make, and 



148 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

divide the product by the number of revolutions the driver 
makes ; the result will be the diameter of driving pulley re- 
quired. 

Before leaving the question of pulleys, it would be as well 
to ffive a few words of advice in reference to the different 
widths of belts to be used for transmitting power over a 
series of intermediate shafts. The theory is: if the belt 
connecting the first mover mth the first intermediate shaft, 
travels but half the number of feet per minute that the belt 
connecting the intermediate shaft to the machine or a second 
intermediate shaft, and the relative sizes of the pulleys 
are the same with both, then the first belt must be twice the 
width of the second, to produce the same effect; and if all 
other things are equal and alike, it is true in practice as well 
as theory. In overlooking this fact, mistakes are invariably 
made in arranging shafts and belts for driving machines, 
such as smutters, separators, purifiers, etc. It is too often 
the case that where a machine requires a five or six.inch 
belt to drive it, running up to its own speed, that a seven- 
inch belt is used from the main shaft to the counter, and 
sometimes moving very slow at that. ISTow this is out of all 
proportion and reason. The only proper way to determine 
the width of belts needed for driving machines is to first 
determine what width of belt is needed to drive the machine 
with ease. This is done by ascertaining the speed of the 
machine and the size of the pulley on it. The circumference 
of the pulley in feet and fractions thereof must be multiplied 
by the number of revolutions it makes, which gives the 
speed of the belt ; then the number of degrees of contact that 
the belt will have with the machine pulley must be ascer- 
tained as nearly as possible, and then by reference to the 
table the width of belt can be selected. Of course, the num- 
ber of horse-power required to drive the machine must be 
known. If this information is not furnished by the manu- 
facturer it can be approximated to closely, by most practical 
mechanics; and in the absence of both a table of approxi- 



gfiAFTliSTG. 149 

mate horse-powers that will be usefal to the uninitiated, will 
be found a little further on in this article. 

After the necessary width of belt is known for driv- 
ing the machine, that must be taken as a basis for ascertain- 
ing the width of preceding belt or belts. If, as we have 
already said, each set of pulleys bear the same relation in 
size — that is to say, if the pulley on machine is ten inches in 
diameter, and its driver twenty, and the diameter of driven 
pulle}^ on counter-shaft is fifteen inches, and the first driver 
thirty, and the distance between centers in both cases about 
the same, then the width of the first belt will be in propor- 
tion to the number of feet it travels per minute, taking the 
speed of the second or machine belt as a basis or unit. 

As an example, we mil suppose that a smutter, or other 
machine, requires a belt five inches mde and making 1500 
feet per minute to run it, what would be the width of the 
first belt, making oidy 1200 feet per minute. To make a 
simple proportion question of it, we will sa}^, as 1200 is to 
1500, so is five inches in width to the width required; or, as 

1200 : 1500 : : 5 
5 

1200)7500(6.25 
7200 



3000 
2400 



6000 
6000 

This calls for a belt six and a quarter inches wide. A 
seven-inch belt should be selected, as it is safer to go above 
than below the calculation. The foregoing example is based 
on the proportions of speed that we have recommended and 
shows more reasonable results. But to illustrate the differ- 
ence between a fair proportion in speeds we mil give an 
example in practice that has come under the author's 
notice quite recently, and which is but a fair sample of many 
others that have come up and are coming up continually. 
The case in view was that of a heavy grading separator, the 



150 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

belt of which was five inches wide and traveled at the rate 
of about 2,000 feet per minute, while the first belt made 
only about 700 feet. By the above rule the width of first 
belt should have been thus : 



700 : 2000 : : 5 
5 

700 ) 10000 ( 14.28 
700 

3000 
2800 



2000 
1400 

6000 
5600 



400 



Measured by the same rule fourteen inches at least 
should have been the width, but instead, it was only eight 
inches wide. The belt was crossed, which gave it some ad- 
vantage in having a greater number of degrees of pulley 
contact, but, after making that allowance, there should have 
been at least a twelve-inch belt to have made it equal. In 
this case the belt could not be made to hold until after the. 
pulley had been leathered and the belt made very tight. 
Such blundering in belting as this frequently occurs, and will 
until mechanics quit guessing instead of making systematic 
inquiries as to the requirements of the case. It is true, it 
may be said that, to some extent, owing to the many varia- 
tions and different conditions, the whole thing is largely a 
guess ; but even allowing that to be true, it is still better to 
do systematic and scientific guessing than to be going it 
"blind " constantly. It would save lots of trouble, vexation 
and annoyance. 



GEARING. I5l 

GEARING. 

In calculating for teethed gearing, the rules to be used 
are much the same, except that the number of teeth should 
be taken instead of the diameter in inches. 

As an example. Required: the number of teeth in a 
pinion on a third mover, to make 75 revolutions, the first 
mover making 25 revolutions and having on it a driving 
wheel with 96 teeth, gearing into a pinion with 48 teeth on 
a second mover, which has a driving wheel with 60 teeth 
intended to gear into the pinion required. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in the two driving 
wheels together, and then by the number of revolutions the 
first mover makes ; then multiply the number of teeth in 
the pinion given by the number of revolutions to be made 
by the third mover, and then divide the last product into the 
first. 

Thus; 
Or, 



96 X 60 X 25, = 


144000. 




48 X 75 = 3600. 






96 
60 




48 
75 


5760 
25 




240 
336 


28800 
11520 


3600)144000(40 
14400 



144000 



The pinion on third mover will require to have forty 
teeth. The proportions in speed are not carried out so well 
in this example as they should be, nor as they are recom- 
mended where belting is used. It is, of course, not as import- 
ant with gear wheels as with belts, as there can be no slip or 
tendency to slip with wheels; but in cases of rapid motion a 
very small pinion should never be geared into a large wheel, 
as it wears out with great rapidity; in other words, a high 
rate of speed should be obtained gradually. A wheel thirty- 
six inches in diameter gearing into a pinion of six inches, and 
running the latter from 150 to 200 revolutions per minute, 



162 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BtJILDlNiJ. 

makes it a very severe task for the pinion, and one that it 
cannot stand very long. 

To find the speed of third mover, the number of teeth in 
drivers, the number of teeth in pinions, and the speed of 
first mover being given, the following modification of the 
rule will do. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in the driving 
wheels and the number of revolutions of first mover to- 
gether, and then the number of teeth in the pinions to- 
gether, and then divide the latter into the former. 

Example — Required: the speed of a third mover, the 
speed of the first being 25, the first driving wheel having 96 
teeth, the second 60; the first pinion has 48, and the second 
40. 

Thus : 96 X 60 X 25 = 144000. 
48 X 40 = 1920, 

Or, 96 48 

60 40 

5760 1920 ) 144000 ( 75 
25 13440 



28800 9600 

11520 9600 



144000 



Seventy-five revolutions per minute is the speed required. 

When it is desired to get the size of the first driver, when 
its speed and the number of teeth of the other driver and 
the pinions are given, and the speed of the last mover, this 
rule will answer : 

Rule. — First multiply the number of teeth in the last 
pinion by its number of revolutions ; divide this product by 
the number of teeth in the driver; the result will be the 
speed of the second mover; then multiply the last obtained 
result by the number of teeth in the first pinion, and di^dde 
by the number of revolutions made by the first mover. 

Example — Required: the number of teeth for a first driv- 
ing wheel making 25 revolutions, gearing into a pinion with 



48 teeth, followed by a second driver with 60 teeth, gearing 
into a pinion with 40 teeth, and making 75 revolutions. 



Thus: 


75 X 40 ■ 


-^ 60 = 50. 






50 


X 48 


-^ 25 = 96. 




Or, 






75 
40 

60 ) 3000 ( 50 
300 




50 

48 

400 
200 

25 ) 2400 ( 96 
225 

150 
150 



The driving-wheel wanted will require to have ninety-six 
teeth. 

Required: the number of teeth in a pinion that is to 
make 96 revolutions, gearing into a driving wheel with 112 
teeth, making 42 revolutions. 

Rule. — Multiplj^ the number of teeth in the wheel by 
the number of revolutions the pinion is to make. 

Thus : 112 X 42 -^ 96 = 49. 

Or, 112 

42 

224 

448 

96 ) 4704 ( 49 
384 

864 
864 

The number of teeth in driving wheel, its speed and the 
number of teeth in pinion being given, required: the speed 
of pinion. 

JExanqde — A driving wheel has 112 teeth and makes 42 
revolutions, gears into a pinion with 49 teeth. What is the 
speed of pinion ? 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in driving wheel 
by its speed and divide by the number of teeth in pinion. 



154 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

Thus : 112 X 42 -^ 49 = 96. 

Or, 112 

42 

224 
448 

49)4704(96 
441 

294 
294 

The few simple rules here given, will, we think, enable 
the young mechanic to solve most problems in gearing that 
may be presented. The whole system is simple, and 
when the principle is understood, but little difSculty is ex- 
perienced in adapting the rules to any combination of gear- 
ing. It is often the case in spur wheels that a number of them 
gear into each other continuously, as in the case of large 
bolting chests driven by spur wheels. At first glance it 
would seem necessary to calculate the whole combination to 
get at the sizes and speeds of extremes, but this is not so. 
]^o matter how many intermediate wheels there may be in a 
gang of this kind, the first and last bear the same relation to 
each other in size and speed as though they geared into each 
other, and should be calculated in that way only. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

As has been before stated in this work a quick method 
of ascertaining the width of an eight-square is to multiply 
by five and divide by twelve ; this rule also applies to the 
corner strip in a conveyor-box or, anything else of a similar 
character. 

Example — 'Required: the width of corner strip for a con- 
veyor-box twelve inches in the clear. 

12 X 5 -^ 12 = 5. 

For this purpose the rule may not be mathematically 
exact, but near enough for practice. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



155 



The following approximates of the horse-power necessary 
to drive the different machines, and other named devices, 
will be fomid useful: 



A Smutter cleaning 15 bushels per hour 2 

30 



50 

75 

" " 100 

" " 150 

Separators cleaning 25 
50 

" " 75 
" " 100 
" " 150 
" " 1000 
" " 1500 



3^ 
5 

7 
9 



Brush machines cleaning 15 bushels per hour 3 

" " 30 " " 4 

" " " 50 " " 5 

" " " 75 " " 6 

" " 100 " " 8 

" " " 150 ', " 10 

A four-foot burr making 150 revolutions per minute and 

grinding 5 to 8 bushels per hour, averages 8 

3i-feet burrs 7 

3 " 6 

2i " 5 

2 " 4 

The last named burrs are to have the same proportionate 
speed and feed. Purifiers, as now built, will require from 
one to four horse-power, according to size. 



A 2-run flour mill should have 

3 " " " 

4 " " " 

5 " " " 

6 " " " 


30 

40 

50 

60 

75 


8 " " " 


100 


10 " " " 


125 



It is but just to say that many of the best makes of smut- 
ters, separators and brush machines do not require the power 
named above. The table is intended to cover the heaviest 
running machines made; but where belts are used for driv- 
ing, it will be well to select a belt adapted to the power 
named, no matter what kind of machine is used, as it will 
save trouble with slipping belts. 



ARTICLE XVII. 



SOME RULES, AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION OF A GENERAL 
CHARACTER, PICKED UP HERE AND THERE. 



To find the Circumference of a Cone, or of a Pulley : Multiply the 
diameter by 3.1416 ; or as 7 is to 22 so the diameter to the circumfer- 
ence. 

To Compute the diameter of a Circle, or of a Pulley : Divide the cir- 
cumference by 3. 1416; or multiply the circumference by .3183; or as 
22 is to 7 so is the circumference to the diameter. 

To Compute the area of a Circle: Multiply the circumference by 
one-quarter of the diameter ; or multiply the square of the diameter 
by .7854 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by .07958 ; or 
multiply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiply 
the square of half the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the Area of a Bight-angled Triangle : Multiply the base by 
the perpendicular height and half the product will be the area. 

To find the Area of a Triangle by the length of its sides : From half 
the sum of the three sides subtract each side separately ; then multi- 
ply the half sum and the three remainders continually together, and 
the square root of the product will be the area. 

To find the Length of one side of a Bight-angled Triangle, when the 
Lengths of the other two sides are given. To find the Hypothenuse : Add 
together the square of the two legs and subtract the square root of 
that sum. To find one of the legs: Subtract the square of the leg, of 
which the length is known, from the square of the hypothenuse, and 
the square root of the difference will be the answer. 

To find the Solidity of a Cone or Pyramid : Multiply the area of the 
base by the height and one-half the product will be the content. 

To find the Solidity of the Frustrum of a Cone : Divide the difference 
of the cubes of the diameters of the two ends by the difference of the 
diameters ; this quotient, multiplied by .7854, and again by one-third 
of the height, will give the solidity. 

To find the Solidity of the Frustrum of a Pyramid : Add to the areas 
of the two ends of the frustrum the square root of their product, and 
this sum, multiplied by one-half of the height, will give the solidity. 

To find tlie Solidity of a Sphere : Multiply the cube of the diameter 
by .5236, and the product is the solidity. 



RULES AND USEFUL INFORMATION. 167 

How to Compute the Contents of a Hopper : Multiply the length by 
the breadth, in inches, and this product by one-third of the extreme 
depth ; divide the last product by 2,150, (the number of cubic inches 
in a bushel), and the quotient thus obtained will be the contents of 
the hopper in bushels. 

The contents of a bin or box with perpendicular sides is found by 
multiplying the length by the breadth, in inches, and this product by 
the depth, and divided as above, will give the number of bushel 
measurement. 

The U. S. standard bushel, grain measure, contains 2150.44 cubic 
inches. 

The U. S. standard bushel, grain measure, is 18i inches diameter, 
8 inches depth. 

The U. S. standard half bushel, grain measure, is 14 inches diam- 
eter, 7 inches depth. 

The U. S. standard gallon, liquid measure, contains 231 cubic 
inches. 

USUAL WEIGHT FEB BUSHEL OF ARTICLES 
OF PRODUCE. 

Wheat, 60 lbs.; barley, 48 lbs.; flaxseed, 56 lbs., timothy, 56 lbs.; 
corn, shelled, 56 lbs.; in ear, 70 lbs.; corn meal, 50 lbs.; oats, 32 lbs.; 
clover, 60 lbs.; rye, 56 lbs.; buckwheat, 52 lbs.; dried apples, 24 lbs.; 
dried peaches, 33 lbs.; coal, 80 lbs.; salt, 50 lbs. 

HAY. 

10 cubic yards of meadow hay weigh a ton. When the hay is 
taken out of large or old stacks, 8 and 9 yards will make a ton. 

11 to 12 cubic yards of clover, when dry, weigh a ton. 

WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Cabic foot iu lbs. Cubic inch iu Ibis. 

Cast iron 450.55 2607 

Wrought iron 486.65 2816 

Steel 489.8 2834 

Copper 555. 32118 

Lead 708.75 41015 

Brass 537.75 3112 

Tin 456. 263 

White Pine 29.56 0171 

Yellow Pine 33.81 019 

White Oak 70 026 

Live Oak 45.2 040 

Salt Water (sea) 64.3 03721 

Freshwater 62.5 03616 

Air 07529 

Steam 03689 



158 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

Pounds. Pounds. 

Loose earth or sand 95 Clay and stones 160 

Common soil 124 Cork 15 

Strong soil 127 Tallow 59 

Clay 135 Brick 125 

EXCAVATIONS. 

A load equals 1 cubic yard of 27 cubic feet, or 21 even bushels (not 
heaped). 

Eiver sand, 1 ton equals 21 cubic feet. 

Pit sand, 1 ton equals 22 cubic feet. 

Gravel, coarse, 1 ton equals 'AS cubic feet. 

Earth, mould, 1 ton equals 33 cubic feet. 

An ordinary cart, 6 feet long by 3i feet wide and 2i feet deep, will 
hold 45 cubic feet, or about 2i tons of earth. 

An ordinary earth wagon will hold 1 cubic yard. 

An ordinary wheel-barrow holds one-tenth cubic yard. 

Day's work of one man : Digging 1,200 superficial square feet, 
aijd one foot deep. In estimating depth, the distance below surface 
lessens the amount, also the solidity of the earth. 

MASONBY. 

Stone walls are measured by the perch (241 cubic feet). Openings 
less than three feet wide are counted solid, over three feet deducted ; 
but 18 inches are added to the running measure for each jamb built. 
Arches are counted solid from their spring. Corners of buildings are 
measured twice. Pillars less than three feet are counted on three 
sides as lineal, multiplied by fourth side and depth. 

It is customary to measure all foundation and dimension stone by 
the cubic foot, water tables and base courses by lineal feet. 

All sills and lintels or ashlars by superficial feet, and no wall less 
than 18 inches thick. 

BBICK WOBK. 

Is generally measured by 1,000 bricks laid in the wall. In conse- 
quence of variatious in size of bricks, no rule for volume of laid brick 
can be exact. The following scale is a fair average : 

7-^ common bricks to a superficial foot, 4 inch wall. 

15 '' " " " " 9 " 

22i " " " " " 13 " 

30 "■ " " '' " 18 " " 

37^ " " " " " 22 " " 

Common bricks measure 8 by 4i, and 2\ inches thick. 

Corners are not measured twice as in stone work. Openings over 
2 feet squnre are deducted. Arches are counted from the spring. Or- 
namental work counted IJ bricks for 1. Pillars are measured on their 
face only. 



RULES AND USEFUL INFORMATION. 159 

BOOFING. 

Slating. A square is 100 superficial feet ; thiclcness of slate ranges 
about one-quarter inch thick, and weighs 2^ pounds per square foot. 
The lap of slate should be about 3 inches. The pitch of a slate roof 
should not be less than 1 inch height to 4 inches length. 

Shingles. One bundle of 16-inch size will cover 30 square feet. 
One bundle of 18-inch will cover 33 square feet, when laid 5^ inches 
to the weather. Five pounds of 4-penny, or 31 pounds of 3-penny 
nails will be required for each 1,000 shingles. 

THE ATMOSPHEBE. 

100 cubic inches of atmospheric air, at the surface of the earth 
when the barometer is at 30 inches, and at a temperature of 60 de- 
grees, weighs 30.5 grains, being 830.1 times lighter than water. 

Specific gravity compared with water, .0012046. 

The atmosphere does not extend beyond fifty miles from the earth's 
surface. 

The mean weight of a column of air a foot square, and of an alti- 
tude equal to the height of the atmosphere, is equal to 2116.8 pounds, 
avoirdupois. 

It consists of oxygen 20, and nitrogen 80 parts ; and in 10,000 parts 
there are 4.9 parts of carbonic acid gas. 

The main pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at .14.7 
pounds per square inch. 

13.29 cubic feet of air weigh a pound avoirdupois, hence 1 ton of air 
will occupy 29769.6 cubic feet. 

The rate of expansion of air, and all other elastic fluids, for all 
temperatures, is uniform. 

From 32 degrees to 212 degrees they expand from 1000 to 1376, equal 
to iiif of their bulk for every degree of heat. — Haswell. 

WATEB. 

Fresh water — the constitution of it by weight and measure is. 

By Weight. By Measure. 

Oxygen 88.9 1 

Hydrogen 11.1 2 

One cubic inch at 62 degrees, the barometer at 30 inches, weighs 
252.458 grains, and it is 830,1 times heavier than atmospheric air. 

A cubic foot weighs 1000 ounces, or 62| pounds avoirdupois ; a 
column 1 inch square and 1 foot high weighs .434028 pounds. 

It expands ^ of its bulk in freezing, and averages .0002517 or ^-^^ 
for every degree of heat from 40 degrees to 212 degrees. Maximum 
density 39.38 degrees. 

A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8i pounds, and contains 
231 cubic inches. 



lL-{i 



-4&<B— PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 624 pounds, and contains 1,728 cubic 
inches, or 1\, gallons. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of 
water, multiply the height of a column in feet by .434. (Approxi- 
mately we generally call every foot elevation equal to one-half pound 
pressure per square inch.) 

To find the capacity of a water cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
the area by the length in inches will give the total number of cubic 
inches ; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a 
gallon in inches), and the product is the capacity in gallons. 

STTiAM.. 

Steam, arising from water at the boiling point, is equal to the 
pressure of the atmosphere, which is 14.706 pounds on the square inch. 

Under the pressure of the atmosphere alone, water cannot be 
heated above the boiling point. 

A cubic inch of water, evaporated under the ordinary atmospheric 
pressure, is converted into 1700 cubic inches of steam, or, in round 
numbers, 1 cubic foot, and gives a mechanical force equal to the rais- 
ing of 2200 pounds 1 foot high. 

The force of steam is the same at the boiling point of every fluid. 

The elasticity of the vapor of spirit of wine, at all temperatures, is 
equal to 2.125 times that of steam. 

The sum of sensible and latent heats is 1202 degrees, and that 140 
degrees of sensible heat becomes latent upon the liquefaction of ice ; 
also, that 1 pound of water converted into steam at 212 degrees will 
heat 25^ pounds of water at 32 degrees to 212 degrees, and that the 
sum is %\ pounds of water. 

The practical estimate of the velocity of steam, when flowing into 
a vacuum, is about 1400 feet in a second when at an expansive power 
equal to the atmosphere ; and when at 20 atmospheres, the velocity 
is increased but to 1600 feet. 

When flowing into the air under a similar power, about 650 feet per 
second, increasing to 1600 feet for a pressure of 20 atmospheres. 

Specific gravity of steam at the pressure of the atmosphere .488, 
air being 1. 

27.206 cubic feet of steam at the pressure of the atmosphere, equal 
1 pound avoirdupois. 

A pressure of 1 pound on a square inch will raise a mercurial steam 
gauge (syphon) 1.01995 inches. 

A column of mercury two inches in height will counterbalance a 
pressure of .9804 pounds on a square inch. — Haswell, 



llULES AND IJSEFlTL iNFORMATIOlSr, 161 

TABLE OF EFFECTS UPON BODIES OF HEAT. 

Deg. Fahr. 

Cast iron, thoroughly smelted " 2754 

Fme gold, melts 1983 

Fine silver, melts 1850 

Copper, melts 2160 

Brass, melts 1900 

Red heat, visible all day , 1077 

Iron, red hot in twilight 884 

Zinc, melts 790 

Quicksilver, boils. 752 

Linseed oil, boils 600 

Lead, melts 594 

Bismuth, melts 476 

Tin, melts 421 

Tin and bismuth, eciual parLs, nielL 283 

Tin three parts, bismuth five, and lead two, melt 212 

Alcohol, boils 174 

Ether, boils 98 

Human blood (heat of) 98 

Strong wines, freeze 20 

Brandy, freezes 7 

Mercury, melts — 39 

Greatest cold ever produced — 90 

Snow and salt, equal parts 

Vinous fermentation 60 to 77 

Acetous fermentation begins 78 

Acetification ends 88 

Phosphorous burns 43 



HOBSES. 

A horse travels 400 yards, at a walk, in 4^ minutes ; at a trot, in 2 
minutes ; at a gallop, in 1 minute. 

He occupies in the ranks a front of 40 inches, and a depth of 10 
feet; in a stall, from 3^ to 4^ feet front ; and at picket, 3 feet by 9. 

Average weight, 1000 pounds each. 

A horse, carrying a soldier and his equipments (say 225 pounds) 
travels 25 miles in a day (8 hours). 

A draught horse can draw 1600 pounds 22 miles a day, weight of 
carriage included. 

The ordinary work of a horse may be stated at 22,500 pounds, 
raised 1 foot in a minute, for 8 hours a day. 

In a horse mill, a horse moves at the rate of 3 feet in a second. 
The diameter of the track should not be less than 25 feet. 

A horse-power in machinery is estimated at 33,000 pounds, raised 1 
foot in a minute ; but as a horse can exert that force but 6 hours a 
day, one machinery horse-power is equivalent to that of 4.4 horses. 

The expense of conveying goods at 3 miles per hour per horse 
teams being 1, the expense at 4i miles will be 1.33, and so on, the ex- 
pense being doubled when the speed is 5^ miles per hour. 

The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men. 

13 



162 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



Table of the mnount of labor a horse of average strength is capable of per- 
forming at different velocities, on canals, railroads, and turnpikes. 
Force of traction estimated at 83.3 pounds. 



Velocity in 


Duration of the 
da.vV work. 


Useful effect fo 


• one day in tons, 


Irawn one mile. 


miles pel- lionr. 


On a Canal. 


On a Railroad. 


On a Turnpike. 


2-1 


m 


520 


114 


14 


3 


8 


243 


92 


12 


3i 


5iHt 


153 


82 


10 


4 


44 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2^,- 


52 


57 


7.2 


^ 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


14 


19 


41 


5.1 


8 


li 


12.8 


36 


4.5 


9 


'iHt 


9.0 


32 


4.0 


10 


f 


6.6 


28.8 


3.6 



The actual labor performed by horses is greater, but they are in- 
jured by it. 

NVMBER OF NAILS AND TACKS PER POUND. 



NAILS. 


TACKS. 


Title. 


Size. 


No. per lb. 


Title. 


Length. 


No. per lb. 


3 penny fine. 


li inch. 


760 


1 oz. 


i inch 


16000 


3 ' 


" 


li " 


480 


14 " 


-h- " 


10666 


4 ' 


( a 


H " 


300 


2 " 


i " 


8000 


5 ' 


1. u 


If " 


200 


24 " 


'^i^ 


6400 


6 ' 


' " 


2 " 


160 


3 " 


1 " 


5333 


7 ' 


; a 


2i " 


128 


4 " 


tV " 


4000 


8 ' 


' " 


2i " 


92 


6 " 


9 U 

rfi 


2666 


9 ' 


i i(. 


21 " 


72 


8 " 


f " 


2000 


10 ' 


1, u 


3 " 


60 


10 " 


H " 


1600 


12 ' 


' " 


3i '^ 


44 


12 " 


f " 


1333 


16 ' 


' "• 


34 " 


32 


14 " 


H " 


1143 


20 ' 


I u 


4 " 


24 


16 " 


i " 


1000 


30 ' 


i ii 


4i " 


18 


18 " 


H " 


888 


40 ' 


(, u 


5 " 


14 


20 " 


1 


800 


50 ' 


' n 


54 " 


12 


22 •' 


i-h " 


727 


60 ' 


1. (.<. 


6 " 


10 


24 " 


li " 


666 


6 ' 


' fence 


2 '^ 


80 








8 ' 


i. u 


24 '^ 


50 








10 ' 


t It 


• 3 " 


34 








12 ' 


1. u 


3i " 


29 









RULES AND USEFUL INFORMATION. 



163 



TEMPEBING STEEL. 

Steel in its hardest state being too brittle for most purposes, the 
requisite strength and elasticity are obtained by tempering — or let- 
ting down the temper, as it is termed — which is performed by heat- 
ing the hardened steel to a certain degree and cooling it quickly. The 
requisite heat is usually ascertained by the color which the surface of 
the steel assumes from the film of oxide thus formed. The degrees 
of heat to which these several colors correspond are as follows : 

At 430, a very faint yellow | Suitable for hard instruments ; as ham- 
At 450, a pale straw color j mer faces, drills, etc. 

At 470, a full yellow )^ For inst'm'ts requiring hard edges without 

At 490, a brown color j elasticity ; as shears, turning tools, etc. 

At 510, brown, with pur- ( For tools for cutting wood and soft metals ; 

pie spots ) such as plane-irons, knives, etc. 

At 550, dark blue ) For tools requiring strong edges without 

> extreme hardness ; as cold-chisels, axes. 

At 560, full blue ) cutlery, etc. 

At 600, grayish blue, verg- [ For spring temper, which will bend before 

ing on black S breaking ; as saws, sword-blades, etc. 

If the steel is heated higher than this, the effect of the hardening 
process is destroyed. — Hasioell. 



UNITED STATES MEASURES AND WEIGHTS 

(According to Act of 1866.) 
MEASURES OF LENGTH. 



Denomiuatioiis aud Values. 


Equivalents in use. 


Myriameter. . 


10.000 meters. 


6.2137 miles. 


Kilometer . . . 


1.000 meters. 


.62137 mile, 3280 feet and 10 inches. 


Hectometer . 


100 meters. 


328 feet and 1 inch. 


Dekameter . . 


10 meters. 


393.7 inches. 


Meter 


1 meter. 


39.37 inches. 


Decimeter . . 


1^7 of a meter. 


3.937 inches. 


Centimeter . . 


TUT) of a meter. 


.3937 inch. 


Millimeter . . . 


To-oTT of a meter. 


.0394 inch. 



MEASURES OF SURFACE. 



Denominations and Values. 


Equivalents in use. 


Hectare 


10 000 square meters. 
100 square meters. 
1 square meter. 


2.471 acres. 


Are. 


119.6 square yards. 
1550 square inches. 


Centare .... 





164 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



MEASURES OF VOLUME. 



Deuominations and Values. 


Equivalents in use. 


Names. 


No. of 

Litters. 


Cubic Measure. 


Dry Measure. 


Liquid or Wine 
Measure. 


Kiloliter } 
or Stere f 
Hectoliter 
Dekaliter. 

Liter 

Deciliter.. 
Centilliter 
Milliliter.. 


1000 

100 
10 

1 

T-O^crTT 


1 cubic meter. 

iV cubic meter. 

10 cubic decimeters. 

1 cubic decimeter. 
nr cubic decimeter. 
10 cubic centimeters. 

1 cubic centimeter. 


1.308 cub. yds. 

2bu.&3.35pks. 
9.08 quarts. 

.908 quart. 
6.1022 cubic in. 

.6102 cubic in. 

.061 cubic in. 


264.14 gallons 

26.417 gallons 
2.6417 gallons 
1.0567 quarts. 
.845 gill. 
.338 fluid oz. 
.28 fluid drm. 



WEIGHTS. 



Denominations and Values. 


Equiv'ts in use. 


Names. 


No. of 
Grains. 


Weis;lit of Vol. of Water at its 
'Maximum Density. 


Avoirdupois 
Weight. 


Millier or Tonneau. . 

Quintal 

Myriagram 


1 000 000 

100 000 

10 000 

1000 

100 

10 

1 

1 
To" 

tIo 
1 n (■] 


1 cubic meter. 

1 hectoliter. 

10 liters. 

1 liter. 

1 deciliter. 

10 cubic centimeters. 

1 cubic centimeter. 

i^nofacub. centimeter. 

10 cubic millimeters. 

1 cubic millimeter. 


2204.6 pounds. 
220.46 pounds. 
22.046 pounds. 


Kilogram or Kilo .... 
Hectogram . 


2.2046 pounds. 
3.5274 ounces. 


Dekagram 


.3527 ounce. 


Gram 

Decigram 


15.432 grains. 
1.5432 grains. 


Centigram 


.1543 grain. 


Milligram 


.0154 grain. 







MEASUBE OF LENGTHS. 



The standard of measure is a brass rod, which, at the temperature 
of 32°, is the standard yard. 



LINEAL. 



12 inches = 1 foot. 

3 feet = 1 yard. 

5.5 yards = 1 rod. 
40 rods = 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs = 1 mile. 



Rods. Pur. 



Inches. Feet. Yards 

36 = 3. 

198 = 16.5 = 5.5. 
7929 = 660 = 220 = 40. 
63360 = 5280 = 1760 = 320 = 8. 



The inch is sometimes divided into 3 barley corns or 12 lines. 
A hair's breadth is the .02083 (48tli part) of an inch. 

1 yard is 000568 of a mile. 

1 inch is 0000158 of a mile. 



RULES AND USEFUL INFOEMATION, ' 165 



guntjer's chain. 

7.92 inches = 1 link. 

100 links = 1 chain, 4 rods, or 22 yards. 
80 chains — 1 mile. 

ROPES AND CABLES. 

6 feet = 1 fathom. | 120 fathoms = 1 cable's length. 

GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL 

1 degree of a great circle of the earth = 69.77 statute miles. 
1 mile = 2046.58 yards. 

LOG LINES. 

Estimating a mile at 61B9.75 feet, and using a 30" glass. 
1 knot = 51.1629 feet, or 51 feet 1.95 inches. 
1 fathom = 5.11629 feet, or 5 feet 1.395 inches. 

If a 28" glass is used, and 8 divisions, then 

1 knot='i7 feet 9.024 inches. | 1 fathom=5 feet 11.627 inches. 

The line should be about 150 fathoms long, having 10 fathoms be- 
tween the chip and first knot for stray line. 

Note — Bowditch nives 61201'etr iu u sea mile, which, if takeu iii< the length, with a 
38" glass, will make the divisiouK 47.6 feet and 5.95 inches. 

CLOTH. 

1 nail = 2.25 inches = .0625 of a yard. 

1 quarter = 4 nails. 
5 quarters =1 ell. 

PENDULUMS. 

6 points = 1 line | 12 lines = 1 inch. 

shoemakers'. 

No. 1 is 4.125 inches in length, and every succeeding number is 
.333 of an inch. 

There are 28 numbers or divisions, in two series of numbers, viz., 
from 1 to 13, and 1 to 15. 

miscellaneous. 

1 palm = 3 inches. I 1 span — 9 inches. 

1 hand — 4 inches. 1 metre — 3.2809 feet. 



MEA8UBE OF TIME. 



60 seconds = 1 minute, 
60 minutes = 1 degree. 
360 degrees = 1 circle 



3600 = 60. 
1296000 = 21600 = 360. 



166 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING 



Sidereal day = 23 h., 56 m., 4.092 sec, in solar or mean time. 
Solar day, mean = 24 h., 3 m., 56.555 sec, in sidereal time. 
Sidereal year, or revolution of the earth, 365.25635 solar days. 
Solar, Equinoctial, or Calendar year, 365.24224 solar days. 

1 day = .002739 of a year. | 1 minute = .000694 of a day. 

30° = 1 sign. 

MEASURE OF SURFACE. 



144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
9 square feet = 1 square yard. 
100 square feet = 1 square [Architect's measure). 



30.25 square yards 
40 square rods 
4 square roods 
10 square chains 
6i0 acres 



LAND. 

1 square rod. 
1 square rood. 

1 acre. 

1 square mile. 



PAPER. 



24 sheets — 1 quire 



Rods 



Roods. 



Yai'ds 
1210. 

4840 = 160. 
3097600 = 102400 = 2560. 



20 quires = 1 ream. 



DRAWING PAPER. 



Cap 13 X 16 

Demy 15.5 x 18.5 

Medium 18 x 22 

Royal 19 x 24 

Super-royal. 19 x 27 

Imperial.... 21.25 x 29 

Elephant . . . 22.25 X 27.75 



inches. I Columbia 23 x 33.75 inches. 

I Atlas 26 X 33 

Theorem 28 x 34 " 

Doub. Elep't 26 X 40 " 

Antiquarian. 31 x 52 " 

Emperor 40 x 60 " 

Uncle Sam.. 48 x 120 



TRACING PAPER. 



Double Crown 20x30 inches. 

Double D. Crown. 30x40 
Doub . D . D . Crown 40 x 60 



Grand Royal 18X24 inches. 

Grand Aigle 27x40 " 

Vellum Writing, 18 to 28 in. wide. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



1 sheet = 4 pages. 
1 quarto =8 " 
1 octavo = 16 '' 



1 duodecimo = 24 pages. 
1 eighteenmo = 36 " 
1 bundle = 2 reams. 



MEASURES OF VOLUME. 



The standard gallon measures 231 cubic inches, and contains 
8.3388822 avoirdupois pounds, or 58373 troy grains of distilled water, 
at the temperature of its maximum density 39°. 83, the barometer at 30 
inches. 



RULES AND USEFUL INFORMATION. 



167 



The standard bushel is the Winchester, which contains 2150.42 
cubic inches, or 77.627413 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at its 
maximum density. 

Its dimensions are 18.-5 inches diameter inside. 19.5 inches outside, 
and 8 inches deep ; and when heaped, the cone must not be less than 
6 inches high, equal 2747.715 cubic inches for a true cone. 



LH^UID. 



4 gills = 1 pint. 
2 pints = 1 quart. 
4 quarts = 1 gallon. 



Gills. Pints 



32 = 



2 pints = 1 quart. 
4 quarts = 1 gallon. 
2 gallons — 1 peck. 
4 pecks - 1 bushel. 



DRY, 



Piuts. Qts. 
8 

16 =:= 8 
64 = 32 = 



Gals 



CUBIC. 

1728 cubic inches = 1 foot. I inches. 

27 cubic feet = 1 yard. | 46656. 

Note — A cubic foot contains -iiOO cylindrical inches, 3300 spherical inches, or ItiOO 
conical inches. 

FLUID. 
60 minims = 1 draclim. I Minims. Drachms. Ounces. 



8 drachms = 1 ounce. 
16 ounces = 1 pint. 
8 pints = 1 gallon. 



480 
7680 = 128. 
61240 = 1024 = 128. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

1 cubic foot 7.4805 gallons. 

1 bushel 9.30918 gallons. 

1 chaldron = 36 bushels, or 57.244 cubic feet. 

1 cord of wood 128 cubic feet. 

. 1 perch of stone 24.75 cubic feet. 

1 quarter — 8 bushels. I 1 load hay or straw = 36 trusses. 
lsackflour=5 " | 1 M quills =1200 quills. 

Galls. Galls. 

Butt of Sherry 1U8 Puncheon of Brandy. . 110 to 120 

Pipe of Port 115 Puncheon of Rum. .'. . . 100 to 110 

Pipe of Teneriffe 100 Hogshead of Brandy . . 55 to 60 

Butt of Malaga 105 Pipe of Madeira 92 

Puncheon Scotch Whis. 110 to 130 Hogshead of claret 46 

A hogshead is one-half, a quarter cask is one-fourth, and an octave 
is one-eighth of a pipe, butt, or Puncheon. 



168 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 



The Standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 cubic 
inches of distilled water weighed in air, at 39^83, the barometer at 30 
inches. 

A cubic inch of such water weighs 252.6937 grains. 



AVOIRDUPOIS. 



16 drachms = 1 ounce. 
16 ounces = 1 pound, 
112 pounds = 1 cwt. 
20 cwt. = 1 ton. 



Pouiidi- 



Drachms;. Ouuces- 
256. 
28672 = 1792. 
573440 = 35840 = 2240. 



1 pound = 14 oz. 11 dwts. 16 grs. troy, or 7000 grains. 
1 ounce = 18 dwts. 5.5 grains troy, or 437.5 grains. 



TROY. 

24 grains = 1 dwt. 
20 dwt. = 1 ounce. 
12 ounces = 1 pound. 

7000 troy grains = 

437.5 troy grains = 

175 troy pounds = 

175 troy ounces = 

1 troy pound = 

1 avoirdupois pound = 



Graiut!. Dwt. 
480. 
5760 = 240. 

1 lb. avoirdupois. 

1 oz. avoirdupois. 
144 lbs. 
192 oz. 

.822857 lb. 
1.215278 lbs. troy. 



AFOTHKCARIBS. 
20 grains = 1 scruple. C4iami<. Scmirs. Drachms^. 

3 scruples = 1 drachm 60. 

8 drachms = 1 ounce. 480 = 24. 

12 ounces = 1 pound. 5760 = 288 = 96. 

45 drops = 1 teaspoonful or a fluid drachtn. 

2 tablespoonful = 1 ounce. 

The pound, ounce, and grain, are the same as in troy weight. 



DIAMOND. 



1 carat 
1 grain 



4 grains. 
16 parts. 



16 parts = .8 troy grains. 
4 grains =3.2 " 



MISCKLLANEOUS. 

1 stone =14 lbs. 

1 cubic foot of ordinary anthracite ooal from 50 to 55 lbs. 
1 cubic foot of ordinary bituminous coal from 45 to 55 lbs. 
1 cubic foot of Cumberland coal. .. . = 53 lbs. 

1 cu.bic foot of cannul coal = 50.3 " 

1 cubic foot charcoal = 18.5 " (hard wood. ) 

1 cubic foot charcoal = 18 " (pine wood.) 

1 cord Virginia pine = 2700 " 

1 cord Southern pine = 3300 " 

Coals are usually purchased at the conventional rate of 28 bushels 
[5 pecKs) to a ton = 43.56 cubic feet, 



RULES AND USEFUL INFORMATION. 



169 



A cental is 100 lbs., and an English qui^rter 480 lbs., or eight bush- 
els of wheat. 



Bushel. 

Wheat. 



Corn (shelled) 56 

Eye 56 

Oats 32 

Buckwheat 52 

Barley 48 



Poundti. 

60 Cental U bushels. 



IH 

3i 

1 12 

Itit 



MEASURES OF VALUE. 



10 mills = 
10 cents = 



cent, 
dime. 



10 dimes = 1 dollar. 
10 dollars = 1 



The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 100 
of alloy in 1000 parts of coin. 

The fineness expresses the quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts. 

The Remedy of the Mint is, the allowance for deviation from the 
exact standard fineness and weight of coins. 

The nickel cent contains 88 parts of copper and 12 of nickel. 

The new bronze cent contains 95 parts of copper and 5 of tin and 
zinc. 

Pure gold 23.22 grains = $1.00. Hence the value of an ounce is 
$20.67 183 + . 

Pure silver 371.25 grains = $1.00. Hence the value of an ounce = 
$1.29 29 + . 

Silver coin of less value than one dollar is issued at the rate of 384 
grains to the dollar. 

Standard gold, $18.60 465 + per ounce. 
Standard silver, $1.16 3636 + per ounce. 



Double Eagle = 516 troy grains. 
Eagle =258 

Dollar =25.8 " 

Dollar (silver) = 412.5 " 



Half Dollar = 192 troy grains. 
5 Cent (nickel) = 77.16 " 
3 Cent =30 " 

Cent (bronze) = 48 " 



The British standards are : Gold, *i of a pound, equal to 11 parts 
pure gold and 1 of alloy ; Silver, tt& of a pound, equal to 37 parts pure 
silver and 3 of alloy. 

A troy ounce of standard gold is coined into £3 17s. lOcZ. 2/., and an 
ounce of standard silver into 5s. %d. 

Copper is coined in the proportion of 2 shillings to the pound avoir- 
dupois. 

The Kemedy of the Mint is. 
Gold, 12 grains per lb. in weight ; silver, 1 dwt. per lb. in weight. 

" iV of a carat in fineness ; " 1 dwt. per lb. in fineness. 

Copper, Tu of the weight, both in weight and fineness. 



PART SECOND 



NEW PROCESS. 



ARTICLE 1. 



NEW PROCESS MILLING. 



There is, in what is called the new process of milling, 
much to be said that could not be so well introduced in the 
first part of this work, and hence the reason for dividing it 
into two parts. 

There is, really, in a general way, not so much difierence 
between the old and new process, as the latter is but an out- 
growth of the former. The most that can be said is, that 
the new process is but an improved method, more elaborate 
in detail ; and, consequently, dealing with the two modes in 
the same treatise, would entail more or less confusion. Of 
course, we are not now including the roller system of mill- 
ing, as this mode of reducing is radically different from 
either of the other two; and, as it is not thoroughly devel- 
oped or entirely perfected, it will be treated practically 
alone, and such available information given as the imperfect 
condition of the method will allow. 

'New process will here be considered to be what it is gen- 
erally understood to imply, and that is, the use of all the 
old methods improved, and such new additions as have been 
found necessary, to make it a success. 

Our new process mill must have its full compliment of 
burrs, as of old; we do not object to having one or more sets 
of rolls for crushing middlings or the tailings from the puri- 
fiers, or germ ends; we want to reduce or grind as you 
like with burrs, but with some change in the manner of 
doing it. Formerly the chief aim of the grinder was to have 
all, or nearly all, of his burrs running on wheat; he ground 
to make as few middlings as possible, because middlings 



174 PRACTICAL HINTS 0'^ MILL BtllLDlNG. 

flour was not so valuable as the first grind. But now we 
want to see at least as many runs on middlings as on wheat; 
more, really, if the greatest state of perfection and the best 
results are desired. There are, of course, circumstances that 
have a controlling influence upon this matter, that will be 
again spoken of; but when the circumstances and conditions 
are all favorable, then, in contra-distinction to the old 
method, there should be as many, or more, runs of burrs 
grinding middlings as grinding wheat. This, to the old- 
method millers, entirely unacquainted with the new method, 
is a very curious and incomprehensible part of the process. 
How it is possible to make middlings enough on one run of 
stone grinding wheat to keep another run of equal size con- 
stantly grinding middlings, is something past their compre- 
hension; and, when it comes to making two runs on wheat 
keep four going on middlings, it becomes " confusion worse 
confounded." And, yet, just such things are done. We do 
not know that two runs even under the most favorable cir- 
cumstances, could keep four constantly grinding middlings; 
but we have known it necessary to keep four runs for the 
purpose of taking care of the middlings made on two runs 
grinding wheat, and for aught we know to the contrary, they 
were kept grinding all the time. 

It is the manner of grinding more than anything else, 
that distinguishes the difference between the old andthenew 
mode ; or, perhaps, it would be more proper to say, it is that 
that apparently distinguishes it; because, the most casual ob- 
server, if he has any knowledge of milling, can note the dif- 
ference in the manner of grinding the moment he enters the 
mill, while few, if any, of the other necessary innovations 
are discernible except to the eye of the practical expert. 
Simply observing the new mode of grinding does not throw 
much light on the manner in which it is done, the effect only 
is observed, without an opportunity to discern the cause. 
The old miller might imagine that he could do the same, at 
his own mill, just by properly manipulating the stones, while 
grinding, but in this he would soon find his mistake, after 



Jtew Process. 176 

trial. The stones would not be in proper sliape for grinding 
by the new method. Attention is called to this fact to show 
that, while apparently the mode of grinding in one case is 
precisely the same as in the other, actually, there is a 
great deal of difference. It is true, the burrs are fed in the 
same way; they revolve in the same way; the chop is dis- 
charged in the same way; but when the burrs are taken up 
and the faces examined, a very remarkable difference is 
noticeable, and the old style miller, if skilled in his business, 
will discover why he could not do it, like his new process 
neighbor. 

We are not now telling what the differences are, but 
simply calling attention to the fact that differences exist; 
and it is to make a study of some of the differences in the 
two methods, that this part of the book is written, indepen- 
dent of the first part. 

But, as we have said, while the greatest apparent differ- 
ence consists in the mode of grinding, it, after all, forms only 
a small part of the whole of the new process, and really 
ought not to be the first spoken of; nor would it be except 
for the fact of its prominence. It ranks next to the first 
part of the process, and undoubtedly ranks first in impor- 
tance; for if a miss is made in grinding, it is not easy to 
remedy it afterward. 

But, after all, the first, and a very important part of the 
process, is in preparing the wheat for grinding. In the 
days that have gone by, and not long gone either, but little 
attention was paid to cleaning and otherwise preparing the 
wheat for grinding; something in the shape of a smutter, 
perhaps, would be used, and sometimes a rolling-screen sep- 
arator. A rolling-screen was used (described by Oliver 
Evans), and this we believe was the only kind of a separator 
used in this countr}^, at least by him or by millers generally, 
to within a period within the memory of numbers of millers 
now living, and not very old either. Smutters or scourers 
were after the fashion of the separator, crude and imperfect, 
and perhaps not more than one of either used in any one 



176 PRACTICAL HliSTTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

mill. We are now speaking of mills of some pretensions — 
merchant mills of "ye olden time." There are to-day num- 
bers of grist mills in the older sections of the country that 
are no better, if as well, supplied with cleaning machinery 
or with anything else, necessary to high milling; but they 
do not need them, or at least imagine they do not, as they 
but grind the farmers' grists as they are brought in; are not 
obliged to make an extra fine quality of flour, or to figure 
for large yield, and are, therefore, content to plod along in 
the well trodden pathway of the past, unmindful of the 
many changes and improvements going on around them. 

But, very fortunately for the welfare of the art, merchant 
millers have been obliged to look at the matter through dif- 
ferent glasses. The tastes of the people generally are con- 
stantly seeking a higher level; not only better, but the best, 
flour is demanded, and to meet this want, millers have to bestir 
themselves ; and, as we have said, among the things neces- 
sary to making high grade flour, was a better system of sep- 
arating and cleaning the wheat. ISTew methods and machines 
have been devised, and more of them used than formerly. 
This was, really, and properly, too, the first step taken in 
the direction of a better system of milling, and was com- 
menced some time before the new process (so-called) was 
introduced, but since which time the requirements of mill- 
ing has required still greater perfection in the sj^stem of 
cleaning the grain; and, as a consequence, not only a smut- 
ter and rolling-screen separator is found in a mill, but in 
many of them brush machines, smutters, reciprocating sepa- 
rators, cockle machines and rolling-screens, in many in- 
stances, are all used in each mill, and sometimes two or 
more of each kind, or at least of such kinds as are the most 
useful. By this means millers are enabled to very thor- 
oughly clean and grade the wheat, and get it in such condi- 
tion as will give the burrs a chance to do good work. 

This, as we have said, is the first step, and to some ex- 
tent (to the casual observer) a part of the invisible process. 
The difference in the working of the burrs is noticed at a 




EXCELSIOR BRAN DUSTER, 



Made by HUNTLEY, HOLCOMB &. HEINE, Silver Creek, New York. 

(See Appendix.) 




EXCELSIOR MIDDLINGS PURIFIER. 

Made by HUNTLEY, HOLCOMB L HEINE, Silver Creek, New York. 



(See Appendix.) 



NEW PKOCESS. 177 

glance, but the great increase in cleaning machinery is not 
so readily detected. And just so is it with the balance of 
the process, hid away, seemingly it is, so as not to be de- 
tected by the ordinary observer; and so, too, that he can 
scarcely tell the difference between a new process mill and 
an old one fairly well provided with machinery. It is more 
especially impossible to detect the part, although it may be 
in full and complete operation, which makes new process 
milling most valuable. The middlings are separated from 
the flour, handled, and nicely cleaned before the eye almost 
of the observer, and yet he can scarcely tell how it is all 
done. The machines may be seen, but further than that, 
nothing can be known unless it is explained. It is all sim- 
ple enough, though, when once understood; there is noth- 
ing mysterious about any part of it, and hence its great 
practical utility. 

A new process mill, such as we are now talking about, 
and such as we are going to describe in detail in a few arti- 
cles, is very simple and very perfect in its operations; we do 
not say most perfect, for improvements are going on all the 
time, and are liable to for some time to come. 

14 



ARTICLE 11. 

THE BURRS FURROW AND FACE BALANCING 

HIGH GRINDING. 

As stated in the last article, the arrangement and kind of 
cleaning machinery to be used, is the first consideration in a 
new-process mill, but as the arrangement is, or ought to be, 
substantially the same in all mills, whether technically new 
process or old, the instructions for arranging, found in the first 
part of this work, will be found to answer all purposes, and 
nothing need be added here, except to repeat with greater 
force, if possible, the declaration that a good and well ar- 
ranged system of cleaning machinery is of the highest 
importance, and without which, good or the best, results in 
milling cannot be obtained. The adhering dirt and other 
foreign matter injurious to the color of flour, must be re- 
moved before the wheat is ground, otherwise it must, to a 
greater or less extent, remain in the flour. 

The burrs, to which this article will be chiefly devoted, 
require some changes for grinding by the new process plan; 
and perhaps it might be said that a change in texture, in 
order to more perfectly harmonize with the changed meth- 
ods, would be needed. Certain it is that the purer and finer 
the quality, the better the results. And right here it seems 
well enough to say, that the difiference in the price of mill- 
stones is, or ought not to be, an object to any miller, because 
there cannot be difiference enough in the first cost to repay 
for the many serious drawbacks that necessarily follow the 
purchase of bad or imperfect stones. If mill-furnishers or 
dealers of whom the purchase is to be made, are reliable, 
straight-forward and honorable men, it is much better, as a 



BURES. 179 

rule, to risk their judgment, take their word for it, and pay 
them a fair price for good stones, than to compel them, as a 
matter of self-protection, to furnish you an inferior article 
on account of your own shortsightedness and desire to save 
on purchases. And then, too, in the purchase of millstones, 
it is well to select sucli houses as are of long standing and 
well-known integrity, as by so doing the liability to get poor 
millstones is much lessened, be the circumstances what they 
may. Such houses rarely handle stock that is not good. 

The chief difference between burrs for old and new pro- 
cess milling, allowing the quality to be the same, is the man- 
ner in which they are dressed. The old method requires or 
seems to require, narrow furrows, wide lands, and rough or 
fairly rough surface. The new, on the contrary, demands 
wide furrows, narrow lands, and smooth surfaces and also 
a truer and more perfect face. Not that a more perfect face 
is more necessary in new process milling than in old, but 
rather because the motive that impels the introduction of 
the later and better methods of milling, also creates a de- 
sire for greater perfection in all the working parts of the 
mill : which accounts mainly for the fact that new process 
millers keep their burrs in more perfect face than do the old. 

The quantity of face to furrow is not by any means fixed, 
but varies considerably with different millers; in order, 
though, to secure the best results in high grinding or reduc- 
ing by burrs, about sixty-five per cent, of the entire face 
surface should be reduced to furrow. The furrows should 
be comparatively shallow, a little deeper at the eye than at 
the skirt; and, being deeper at the eye, would necessarily 
require them to be a little wider also at the eye ; the bottom 
of furrow nmst be straight and out of wind, and hence the 
reason for being widest where the furrow is deepest. The 
furrows should be drawn out to a nice feather edge, the bot- 
tom forming a gentle but perfect incline, as it is on these 
inclines much of the grinding or granulating is done, and 
there should, therefore, be no abrupt shoulders of any kind, 
as used to be the case, and is even now so, in some instances. 



180 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

Occasionally, for some unaccountable reason, millers seem 
to have a desire for small shoulders on the feather edge of 
the furrow. The only apparent value of such an obstruc- 
tion is to irregularly murder the grain without producing 
valuable or useful results. It is now universally conceded 
that the bottom of the furrow should be made as smooth as 
it is possible to make it, and many votaries of smooth 
surface claim that the face of the stone should be just as 
smooth as the furrow; but this claim is disputed by others. 
It is, though, we believe, conceded by all of the more ad- 
vanced millers that the face should be fairly smooth, and 
that when cracked by a pick at all, the cracking should be 
very light. But the admission of those in favor of cracking, 
that the stones grind best after running long enough to 
wear oiF the wire edges of crack, goes a long way in proving 
that smooth surfaces are the most valuable; else why do the 
stones do better work, after running long enough to wear 
smooth, than before. 

The chief value of the pick, or other stone dressing in- 
strument, is to dress off the high places and keep the burrs 
in as good face as possible. If this is done, the natural 
grit of good burrs will produce the best results, without the 
aid of cutting edges made by picks. Smooth surfaces, both 
of face and furrow, with perfect face, may be considered the 
most useful, and what every miller should strive to get on 
his burrs. 

It is unnecessary to say anything here about the draft or 
number of furrows. It is, as has been before intimated, an 
unsettled question, and probably cannot be positively settled. 
The author is of the opinion that it makes but little differ- 
ence about either, so that both are kept within reasonable 
bounds; that is to say, keep the draft of leading furrow 
about an inch for each foot in diameter of stone, and the 
number not exceeding three to the quarter; two to the quar- 
ter make it nearer equal, and, if an equalized dress is the best, 
then the legitimate conclusion would be that two furrows 
to the quarter would be the most valuable; but as both are 



furrowing! 181 

working to apparently equal advantage, there seems to be 
no good ground for establishing an arbitrary rule in refer- 
ence to the matter. 

The really important part of the matter is that, no matter 
whether two or three furrows to the quarter, they should be 
put in right, dressed right, and kept dressed right; which 
means, simply, that they should be smooth, straight and 
wide; with a gentle but regular incline from the back of 
farrow up to feather edge or face of stone. 

Sometimes numbers of other short furrows have been cut 
at sharp angles across the lands for the purpose, as claimed, 
of making more middlings; but whether this was the result 
of having more furrows, and, consequently, more reducing 
edges, or of the necessary reduction of the face, is a ques- 
tion. It is believed that a corresponding reduction of face 
surface, by widening existing furrows, would produce the 
same result, and would be less troublesome and more easily 
kept in order. 

Bosoming for new process grinding is much the same as 
for other grinding; one third, at least, of the diameter of 
the stone should be allowed for bosom ; and, if it were possi- 
ble to have a perfectly graduated bosom from the eye to the 
skirt of the stone, it would probably be better ; but as such 
cannot be well obtained, it is perhaps, practically, best not 
to attempt anything more than a feed distributing bosom, 
about the size indicated, leaving the balance of the surface 
straight. 

Considerable attention was paid to balancing in a previous 
article, and, it is therefore useless to add anything here, fur- 
ther than to say, or rather repeat, that this part of the prep- 
aration should not be overlooked nor its value underesti- 
mated. The modes of balancing therein described were not 
intended to be arbitrary. The object aimed at, as was then 
stated, was to illustrate the principle, the manner, or means, 
that could be devised by the operator. 

When a pair of burrs is put substantially in the shape 
herein described, they may be considered ready for high 



182 PRACTICAL HliSTTS ON MlLL BUILDING. 

grinding or new process milling. The object of this mode 
of grinding is to make middlings, as little first flour as pos- 
sible, not to deteriorate it too much ; and all the middlings 
possible, is the aim. By the after treatment of the middlings 
thus made, will be found the principle secret of making 
patent flour, so called. 



AIITICLE III. 



THE PURIFIER. 



After the wheat is ground or granulated (the latter term 
being really the most applicable in the new method, because 
the design is to reduce it to granular particles of various 
grades of fineness, but the coarser the better, so long as free 
from the bran) the product is conveyed to a reel, and the 
bran, middlings, and flour, separated from each other. The 
flour is finished ready for market, but the bran and mid- 
dlings have to each be subjected to still further treatment; 
but, as it is the middlings we are interested in now, we will 
let the bran have a rest and give it a lively scouring up after 
awhile. 

After the middlings have been separated from the balance 
of the stuft", it is necessary that it should pass through 
another reel, clothed with fine cloth, no coarser than 12, and 
finer, "according to circumstances. This is called the dust- 
ing reel, and is intended to remove all the fine flour, not 
taken out by the first bolting process. This last operation, 
if complete, leaves the middlings sharp and distinct and in 
good shape for the purifying process. But first it is neces- 
sary to grade the middlings; we say necessary, but it would, 
perhaps, be as well to modify, by saying that it ought to be 
done, as, we think, the best results depend upon it, and the 
best flour-makers do it, although very good results follow 
without it. The reason for grading before purifying is that 
very coarse and very fine middlings require a dififerent ma- 
nipulation for purifying thoroughly. The same kind of a 
machine will purify both, as a rule, equally Avell, but each 
grade, as a matter of course, requires difterent cloth. But to 



184 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDINa. 

get back to the grading process. For this purpose a reel 
has to be provided, clothed with cloth of different degrees ot 
fineness. We will say, as an example, one reel eighteen feet 
long, clothed with nine feet of 'No. 6 at the head, followed 
by five feet No. 4, and the balance No. 1. This arrangement 
would make three diiferent sizes of middlings, or three 
grades. This must be looked upon simply as an illustration 
of the method, and not an arbitrary arrangement of cloth, 
because the numbers and quantity of cloth has to be adapted 
to the. kind of milling that is done. Hard wheat and high 
milling requires coarser cloth, while soft wheat and low mil- 
ling may require finer cloth. The chief object here sought 
for is to impress the importance of making two or more 
grades of middlings. After the middlings have been thor- 
oughly dusted and graded, and right here, without again re- 
peating it, perhaps it may be considered by some of no very 
great importance to dust the middlings, but it is, though. 
The middlings must be separated from the fine flour before 
undergoing any kind of a purifying process, otherwise, by 
the process, the fine flour is very liable to be wasted by being 
blown into the dust room along with the dust and dirt of 
various kinds removed during the process. Therefore, to 
insure yield, save waste, and to make the business the more 
profitable, it is absolutely necessary that the middlings should 
be well dusted before being purified. The dustings can be 
run into low or such grades of flour as will not be injured 
thereby; circumstances must determine that question. 

The method of purifying middlings, or rather, perhaps, 
it would be better to say, that the principles involved are 
much the same, no matter what the method. The impurities 
to be removed have to be either floated off, or drawn out by 
air suction, or driven out by blasts; in some instances all of 
these means are used in the same operation. To do it prop- 
erly, the middlings must first be spread out in a very thin 
stratum on a sheet of bolting cloth, the bolting cloth being 
attached to a frame, having a reciprocating motion. This 
motion keeps the middlings constantly, but slowly, o]\ the 



THE PtmiFlEH. 185 

move, while there is playing through the meshes of the cloth 
a gentle current of air, drawn up through it by a suction fan 
above, or forced up through it by a blast fan below, or both 
combined. This current of air carries along with it the light, 
fuzzy matter that darkens the flour, and that cannot be 
effectually removed in any other known way. At the same 
time this current of air buoys up the fine bran and other 
stuff too heavy to be carried off" by the air currents, and 
causes it to float on top and over the tail end of the appara- 
tus, while the cleansed middlings are sifted through the cloth 
down into a conveyor or hopper below, where it is gathered, 
and, if completed, sent to the stock-hopper, or wherever else 
it is required to be sent. 

The whole process is very simple when understood, and 
requires only that all the conditions be fulfi.lled and the ar- 
rangements made complete. To but half do it is almost as 
valueless as not doing it at all ; and, hence, we would advise 
all flour-makers who contemplate making a change and 
adopting the new process of milling, to do it "with sufficient 
thoroughness to insure at least a partial success; and the 
more thorough they make it, the nearer they come to mak- 
ing it a complete success, the more satisfactory in every 
respect will be the outcome. 



ARTICLE IV. 



ARRANGEMENT OF PURIFIERS. 



Having said all, perhaps, that is necessary, in reference to 
the principle and the importance of purifying the middlings, , 
we will now turn our attention to the application of the same, 
and to the arrangement of machines. 

"WTien machines are spoken of, we do not mean any par- 
ticular machines, for there are now a legion of purifiers, 
many of which are good; and, so far as the object to be at- 
tained is concerned, it does not matter whether the miller 
buys one of the many made by different manufacturers, or 
whether he makes one of his own ; but this much must be 
said in reference to his being his own manufacturer: he 
must understand what he is doing before commencing, other- 
wise he stands a most excellent chance of paying very dear 
for his whistle. Purifying middlings is a very delicate oper- 
ation and requires a delicate working machine and a delicate 
manipulation ; and a miller, by being his own manufacturer, 
is liable before he gets what he really needs, to spend much 
more than it is worth, unless he does know before handjust 
what he wants and just how to provide it; and, in conse- 
quence, we think we are safe in advising, as a rule, millers 
to apply to some manufacturer of machines, in whom they 
have confidence, to provide them with purifiers ; and, al- 
though, after purchasing the most standard machines and of 
the most reliable dealer or manufacturer, there may some- 
times be a failure; that is, the purchaser may not be able to 
make the machine work satisfactorily. But in such case he 
is relieved of the expense, the burden and care of experi- 
menting with the machine, as the manufacturer is only too 



ARKANGEMENT OF PXJRIFIEIIS. 187 

willing to attend to it in order to save the reputation of his 
macliine, and will make it work or replace it with something 
that "will work. 

The author is or has been acquainted with a number of 
instances where the purifiers were built in and along with 
the mill, but the parties so doing had an intimate knowledge 
of what they were doing, and hence had no trouble in mak- 
ing it a success. 

In arranging purifiers in old mills already well filled 
with machinery, the location has to be fixed according to 
circumstances. It may be, and mostly is, impossible to get 
such machines just where it is most convenient to have 
them, and where they could be placed and worked to the 
best advantage, and at the least expense. In such cases, as 
a matter of course, the best arrangement that can must be 
made. The further away from where they are needed, the 
greater the expense of getting them in, on account of the 
addition of conveyors, elevators, spouts, etc. 

The most convenient place for purifiers, provided the 
other conditions are as they should be, is directly above the 
stock-hoppers, so that the purified middlings can run directly 
from the machines into these hoppers. When the middlings 
are graded, as has been recommended, each grade should 
have its own hopper and be ground on a separate run of 
stones. This mode of doing it is, as has already been said, 
necessary in order to make the change a complete success ; 
but great benefits can be derived by cleaning the different 
grades separately, and afterwards grinding them all together. 
It is, at least, better to do it in this way than not to do it at 
all, as we believe it is of the highest importance that the 
middlings should be purified before re-grinding, and the 
more complete the system of grinding, the more perfect the 
work; but if imperfections in the plan exist, it had better 
be in the grinding than in the purifying part of the arrange- 
ment; all the grades had better be ground on one run of 
stone than not to have purifying surface enough, because it 
is possible to make good, clear flour out of well purified 



188 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

middlings, all of the grades ground together ; but it is not 
possible to do it with as many runs as there are grades, if 
the middlings are but half cleansed. We do not here wish 
to be understood as in any way trying to back down from 
our original position — that the best results can only be ob- 
tained by having a complete outfit in every way — we still 
adhere to that and deviate only to accommodate ourselves to 
circumstances. There are some old mills, we may safely say 
a great many old mills, that can be greatly benefitted by mak- 
ing but a partial change, and as the owners of these mills, 
many of them, are not prepared to make all the changes nec- 
essary for a complete new process mill, it is best that they 
should know what is of the most importance in making any 
change, and what is likely to benefit them the most ; and, iu 
answer to that we say emphatically, if they have already 
paid attention to the dress of their burrs, as already directed, 
then prepare for purifying the middlings. But to go back 
to the arrangement of the purifying machines. As we said, 
the machines, if possible, should be so arranged as to deposit 
direct into its own stock-hopper each grade of middlings. 
But if but one run of stone only, or in other words, if all the 
grades have to be ground together, then the finished pro- 
ducts of all machines should be run together in one hopper 
by the use of spouts, if available ; if not, a common conveyor. 
In small mills, where it is not convenient to put in more 
than one purifier, it is better even to do that than to have 
none. It is impossible to make a thorough purification on 
one machine, but with a good machine, great improvement 
can be made. Still, we would invariably recommend the 
use of at least two purifiers : two small ones instead of one 
large one. There is a prevailing idea among millers own- 
ing small mills that if they can get one machine large 
enough to do their w^ork, they are fixed ; but this is not true, 
for not only cannot the middlings be so well purified, but it 
cannot be done so economically with one machine as it can 
be with two. With one machine only, more or less of the 
coarse middlings are liable to be floated off over the tail 



ARRANGEMENa: OF PURIFIERS. 189 

along with the fine bran and be wasted. With two machines, 
both clothed to suit, this waste can be avoided. 

If it be not convenient to place the purifier in direct con- 
nection with the stock-hoppers, then, of course, the next 
most convenient locality must be selected. In doing this, it 
must be kept in view, as much as possible, the task of get- 
ting the middlings both to and from the machine or machines, 
and also for convenience in driving all of these things 
must be looked after, and for the purpose skilled mechanics 
should be employed, and men of judgment, as by that means 
only can economy in expenditure and a good job be secured. 

Purifiers, like all other machines, must be set level and 
in line with driving shafting, and then well braced to insure 
a steady motion. It should have been remarked, in seeking 
a location for the purifiers, that a convenient place for a dust 
house should be secured, and this should be as close to the 
machines as is practical, because the air currents used in 
purifiers are not strong enough to carry the waste a great 
distance without filling and choking up the channels, which, 
in a little while, prevents the machine from working pro- 
perly ; nor should there be any abrupt turns in the air-con- 
ducting spout from a purifier, where it is possible to avoid 
it. If any at all, they should be on a full and complete cir- 
cle, with no chance for a break or a clog. 

It is usual to provide for returning a part of the product 
baek to the head of the machine. This is especially so where 
more than one is used; a part of the coarsest product should 
be sent to the second machine. This must, however, be ar- 
ranged according to circumstances and existing conditions ; 
as no set of rules will apply with absolute certainty to all, 
there must be variations to suit. It might be said that these 
technical questions are settled by the manufacturer of ma- 
chines, and in purchasing machines, the manufacturer's in- 
structions are to be followed. But when parties build their 
own machines, then, of course, they must find out how to 
run it ; and, therefore, in using single machines, provision 
must be made for returning back to the head of the machine, 



190 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

and as much or as little of the product sent back, as may be 
necessary to obtain the best results. Single machines must 
be provided with graded cloth, commencing at the head with 
the finest and ending at the tail mth the coarsest. The num- 
ber of cloth used must be determined by the mode of grind- 
ing, and the coarseness of the middlings. High grinding 
demands coarse cloth at the head; low grinding relatively 
finer cloth. In ordinary milling, IS'o. 6 is used at the head 
and then graded down to 1, at the tail ; but when higher 
grinding is adopted, coarser cloth accordingly must be used. 

It is of no real advantage to send the product or any part 
of it, coming through the coarser cloth at the tail of machine, 
back to the head. If there is no other provision for repuri- 
fying it, it had better be cut off" and used for a lower grade 
of flour. 

After purifiers have been placed and in good running or- 
der, it is easy enough to learn how to manipulate the returns 
and regulate the other cut-ofis, so as to get the best out of it 
all. The tailings, or that portion of the stuff* which floats 
over the tail end of shaker or sieve, is generally supposed to 
be of no value except for feed. This, however, is not always 
the case where full provision is made for new process milling; 
the tailing of purifiers are sent to crushing rolls, and from 
thence to other purifiers, and re-eleaned. 

It must be borne in mind that no effort is here made to 
give instructions for the arrangement of purifiers in a forty- 
run mill, or even in mills much less in size and capacity, 
where many machines are used and a large business done. 
Parties controlling operations on so large a scale need no in- 
structions, or at least thej^ ought not, although it often hap- 
pens that they do, but are in blissful ignorance of the fact. 

The chief object aimed at in the instructions here given, 
in reference to the arrangement and Avorking of purifiers, 
is intended, as the work entire, in fact, is intended, for the 
benefit and instruction of those that have not had the advan- 
tages of a high mechanical education — men of about the 
same calibre as the author, who claims to stand on no very 



ARRANGEMENi: OF PURIFIERS. 



191 



exalted plain, and for the benefit of the rising generation 
of young millwrights and millers who are eager to take 
advantage of every opportunity afforded them for learning 
something of their future business. 




ARTICLE V. 



BOLTING. 



It might be supposed that bolting, under the new process 
of milling, would be much the same as under the old, and so 
it is, really; except by adding more cloth, no important 
changes are made in the manner of bolting by many wdio 
have adopted the later methods of milling. But while a 
change in the manner of bolting may not follow, necessaril}', 
we still think that very good residts follow a radical change 
from the old system. But not to anticipate; we will con- 
fine ourselves to the subject in a general way, without refer- 
ence to the manner, especially, in which it is done. 

We have been talking about and trying to learn how best 
to purity and re-grind the middlings, and will now inquire 
how best to bolt them after being ground. 

Substantially the same rules for making chests, close, 
tight, and secure, as has been previously given should be 
adopted. 

And here we will briefly describe how to make a reel ; 
this should have been done in our first lesson, but was neg- 
lected. The shaft of a reel may be made of wood, as has 
been described ; or gas pipe, as is frequently done, may be 
used for the purpose. In the latter case, iron spiders have 
to be fastened to the gas pipe, three or four, according to 
length of reel, with set screws. Then, for stiffening the 
shaft, iron stay rods must be rmi from the center or hub of 
the two end spiders, and over the middle spider or spiders, 
one stay rod for each set of arms. These stay rods are to be 
made reasonably taut, after which the ribs can be fitted to 
the arms of the spiders, and the construction of the reel pro- 



BOLTING. 193 

eecded with in the ordinary way, or in the way we are now 
about to describe, for making entirely wooden reels. After 
the shaft has been completed, including the fitting in of the 
gudgeon, mortises must be cut or round holes bored in the 
shaft for the arms. It is more common now to use round 
than square arms in reels. These arms may be dressed out 
by hand, or what is better, they can be turned up in a lathe, 
where it is available ; they should be made full in the cen- 
ter, and of equal size where they go through the shaft, and 
tapering sliglitly from the shaft to either end, with about a 
half inch round tenon turned on the ends; the body of the 
arm should be about one and a quarter inches thick. Some 
millwrights make reel shafts six-square, but it makes a bet- 
ter looking shaft and one easier handled, to make it twelve- 
square. On a twelve-square shaft a line should be made 
along the center of every other square, then commencing 
sixteen or eighteen inches from either end and ending about 
the same distance from the other end, the same must be 
spaced at an equal distance apart; the holes should then be 
bored from both sides, care being taken to have the starting 
points exactly opposite each other, so as to have the arm 
stand at right angles with the shaft when it is in ; when the 
arms have been fitted in, the ribs must be fitted to the arms, 
and we will explain that among the innovations made in the 
old system, is that flat, or comparatively fiat ribs, are now 
used instead of the deep rib, as formerly ; the ribs should 
not be made more than an inch in depth, anywhere, and they 
can be made less by using more arms and making the inter- 
vals shorter; on the lifting side the rib should be beveled off 
to a thin edge between the arms, this will allow the meal to 
slide over gently without being lifted up and dashed down 
in the cloth repeatedly, and thereby insure better bolting; 
the outside of ribs should be dressed to a circle correspond- 
ing to circle of reel, or perhaps they should be rounded a 
little more, so as not to have the cloth bearing too hard on 
the corners. After the ribs have been fitted in, the head must 
be attached in any convenient manner that may be suggested 

15 



194 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

or liked ; when heads are made double, as is done by some, 
mortises corresponding with the size and shape of the ends 
of the ribs are made in the head, which allows it to slip on 
the ribs and into place ; common screws are then used through 
the outside of head and into the ends of ribs, for securing 
the head to its place. The inside pQrtion of a double head 
should be made the size and shape of the six-square reel; it 
then answers for fastening the cloth to ; if, though, the 
shoulder or bearing thus formed does not furnish surface 
enough for attaching the head of the cloth to, it can be in- 
creased by fitting strips between the ribs and against the head. 

When the head has been finished the tail strips must be 
fitted in; these should be not less than three inches wide, 
nor more than a half inch thick, and should be let down in 
the ribs so as to make the outside surface flush ; the ends of 
strips should be mitred on each rib, and the sharp corner 
thus made rounded oft' to correspond with the rib. 

After the tail strips have been fastened on, the inside 
corner should be beveled off" so as to form as little obstruc- 
tion as possible to the outward passage of the bran. 

As has been said, reels of thirty-two inches in diameter, 
or less, are made six-square. The cloth for reels of this 
kind is made by stripping the bolting cloth, whatever kinds 
are to be used, into three pieces, two widths of bolting cloth 
being sufficient to go around a reel ; between each strip of 
bolting cloth there is sewed a strip of ticking wide enough to 
cover the rib of the reel, and at the head of the reel there should 
be about six inches of ticking all around, or enough to allow 
the feed to drop on it, instead of the bolting cloths. At the 
tail, also, there should be enough ticking all around to cover 
the tail strips. This mode of making and putting on a bolt- 
ing cloth keeps the silk from coming in contact with any 
part of the wood work of the reel, prevents insect harbors, 
and is generally an excellent plan for clothing a reel. 

This, we think, is about all that need be said about the 
practical part of making and clothing a reel, and more than 
should have been said here, except, as we have said, for the 



BOLTIN*G. 195 

reason that it was overlooked in another part of the work, 
where it ought to have come in. 

A few things about the general principle, in harmony 
with present methods of bolting, is what we want to say 
here. We want to say that, as it is important that the mid- 
dlings should be ground alone, so also should the flour be 
bolted alone. We do not mean that each grade of middlings 
must (although it is best that each should) have a separate 
reel, unless it should be a grade of quality. All of the mid- 
dlings flour of the same quality can be bolted together, but 
not in a cramped way. There should be enough of cloth to 
insure a good job, and flne enough also. The flour should 
not be lifted up by the ribs and banged around in the reels, 
but allowed, as we have said, to have a gentle, sliding motion 
around the reel. The motion of the reel should not be too 
rapid nor the pitch too great ; a quarter of an inch to the foot 
is suflicient pitch, and twenty-eight to thirty revolutions per 
minute, is fast enough to run the reel, that is, a reel thirty- 
two inches in diameter. Larger reels must run relatively 
slower, and smaller reels faster. The smoother the motion of 
the chops in the passage through the reels, the more certainty 
there is of having the flour clear and pretty ; and, as the great 
aim of high art milling is to get the flour as white, as pure, 
and as clear as possible, the more attention there is paid to 
having the bolting reels all that is needed for the purpose, 
the greater surety there is of obtaining desired results. Abun- 
dance of cloth, and that of the right grade of fineness, reels 
so constructed and run as to give the meal a slow, easy mo- 
tion, keeping it at the same time in constant contact with the 
bolting cloth, is what is most needed to insure good results 
in boltini>:. 



ARTICLE VI. 

BOLTING (continued). 

To avoid the returning process in bolting, as done by the 
old method, it is necessary to make flour at every stage. To 
illustrate, we will take three reels, one above the other; the 
upper one will be clothed with 'No. 12 cloth the entire length, 
the next No. 13, and the third with No. 14. The chop meal 
is sent first, as usual, to the upper reel, from which flour is 
drawn as far as it will make it good enough, the balance is 
cut off and sent to the head of the next reel ; so, also, is all 
that passes over the tail of the upper reel, just the same, in 
fact, as is usually done. Both the cut-offs and tailings of 
the upper reel, are sent to the next reel below, and by the 
old method, from thence back to the upper reel again ; but 
that part of the mode we propose to do away with. We be- 
lieve that after the flour has been bolted it should remain 
free and not be again mixed with the oftal, as is the case 
whenever well bolted returns are sent back to the head of 
the first reel. In the second reel flour is made as far as it 
can be good enough, the balance is cut ofl"; and it, together 
with the tailings, are sent to the head of the third reel, and 
again flour is made, so far as it can be, the same as in the 
two upper reels. It is now presumed, though, that the flour 
is all taken out and the tailings of the third reel are ready to 
go to a dusting reel, they being the middlings. It must be 
understood, though, that all the flour has not been saved yet. 
There is a cut-oft' from the third reel that has to be taken care 
of, but that we will leave for the present, and go over the 
ground again ; and, as nothing has been said about bran, we 
will suppose we have been dressing middlings flour^ and, 



BOLTING. 197 

although, it is a kind of backward way of doing business, it 
will serve just as well for illustrating the method. 

We will now provide another three-ueel chest, and clothe 
it in this case in the same way as previously; but before in- 
troducing the chop to the upper reel in this chest, it must 
undergo some kind of a scalping process, by which the bran 
and shorts are removed. This may be done by the use of a 
separate reel covered with very coarse cloth or wire, or it 
may be done with disintegrating, cooling, or agitating ma- 
chines, made for the purpose. Some of these machines seem 
to be working very well and are apparently more satisfactory 
than the ordinary reels, but the mode of scalping must be 
determined by those interested ; all that is now to be said, is 
to scalp or remove the bran before sending the flour to the 
bolting chest. 

After it has been sent to the first reel of the chest, all that 
will make the grade of flour that is desired is gathered for 
that purpose, the balance is cut off", and together with the 
tailings of the reel, is sent to the head of the next reel below, 
where the same operation is repeated, and cut-off and tail- 
ings go to the third reel, where all that can be used for flour 
is saved, and the balance cut ofi", and that brings us where 
we left ofl" with the other chest. To take care of what has 
been cut ofi" the lower reels, two other reels will have to be 
provided, covered with cloth at least as fine as that used on 
the lower reel in the chests named, the lower reel of the two 
the finer, if possible. To the upper of these two reels last 
provided, must be sent the product that was cut ofi^ and un- 
provided for in the bottom reels of the two first named chests. 
If there should be any product of the two reels good enough 
for the first grade flour, it may be run along with it ; if not, 
the whole of it must be run into second and third grade flour, 
or into one grade only, as may be desired. These two reels 
are operated in the same manner as the others ; the flour is 
spouted into the head of the upper reel, and the best of the 
results taken care of, while the balance, including the tail- 
ings, are sent to the lower reel, where the presumption is all 
is finished up, 



l98 PilACTICAli itlNiS OiJ MILL BtliLDtiJGt. 

It must be distinctly remembered that the arrangement 
spoken of here is not intended to be arbitrary ; it is intended 
to be illustrative only. We do not pretend to confine the 
miller to a fixed number of reels, nor to a fixed kind of cloth ; 
both may be varied to suit. There may be four reels and 
four operations in each of the two first named chests ; and, 
instead of using the numbers of cloth as named, Xos. 12, 14 
and 16, may be used in succession, or any other set of num- 
bers that may seem best adapted to the end in view. Kor 
do we say that even then the flour will be sufficiently well 
bolted ; on the contrary, we believe the entire mass can be 
made better in color, at least, by rebolting. In fact, we are 
not in the least afraid of bolting ; the more of it in reason, 
the better. What we want most to impress upon the mind 
of the reader, is that when flour has once been separated 
from the ofi[al, keep it separated; and what we have at- 
tempted to do is simply to show how it may be done without 
confining the miller to a fixed set of apparatus. 

This mode of bolting is not general by any means ; in 
fact, we think, but comparatively few of the millers of this 
or any other country, have ever tried it, but such as have, 
appear to have uniformly good results. But a simple chang- 
ing of the mode of bolting, without making such other 
changes in old mills as have been spoken of, and as are nec- 
essary to insure good results, although improvement may be 
made, entire satisfaction cannot be expected. 

The whole system of new process milling is just such as 
has been repeatedly said, tliat, while a change for the better, 
made in any one stage of the operation, may benefit, entire 
satisfaction and the best results cannot be secured without 
an entire remodeling of the old mill and system. 



ARTICLE VII. 

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OP A NEW PROCESS MILL. 

We think, perhaps, a quicker and more comprehensive 
knowledge of how a new process mill should be arranged 
can be obtained by a brief description of, say, a ten-run mill. 

Our imaginary mill must be a firm, handsome structure 
of either brick or stone (this, however, need not prevent 
those who desire it to put up wooden or frame buildings), 
sixty by seventy feet, and should be, though not necessarily, 
four stories high above the basement. The basement should 
form a complete, well-ventilated and well-lighted story, with 
a grouted or other kind of a firm, hard floor, and should be 
at least twelve feet in height from floor to ceiling. The 
first story above the basement should, also, be well-lighted, 
and at least fourteen feet high. The two next stories eight- 
een feet in height, and the top story eighteen feet or more, 
as the case may be, and according to the style of roof used. 

Along one end of the building, in the basement, there 
should be mounted on a firm foundation of solid masonry 
an equally firm and neatly finished husk-frame, made either 
of wood or iron (we prefer iron). ~ Measuring from center of 
husk-frame back into the building a distance of sixteen feet, 
or such a matter, there should be stretched across the 
building, parallel with the husk-frame, a line of three to 
three-and-a-half inch shafting. This line of shafting, to be 
lastingly firm, should, like the husk-frame, be mounted on 
pillars of solid masonry, although it is quite common to use 
heavy wooden posts or wooden frames for supporting this 
shaft. This line-shaft is supposed to run through from the 
outside of the main building, where it is connected with a 



200 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

steam engine or other motive power. Its speed should not 
be much less than one hundred revolutions per minute if it 
can be avoided. From this shaft, and over pulleys on the 
same of a size suitable to make the speed of burrs right, 
must run quarter-twist or reel-belts, one for each run ot 
stone, and each nine inches in width, and connecting the 
stone spindles with the line-shaft. With suitable guides and 
tightening pulleys for the belts, we have an excellent driving- 
apparatus for the burrs, and although as good as is gener- 
ally made, still imperfect. 

We have in the past thought and frequently asserted that 
burrs driven in this way needed no other device to insure a 
steady, regular motion; but after observing some experi- 
ments in a small way, have come to the conclusion that, 
while so much irregularity in motion is not observable as 
when gearing is used, still there is some under the most 
favorable circumstances where reciprocating steam engines 
are used as motors; hence, in order to be sure of a steady 
motion it is best to put springs of some kind on the spin- 
dles. This done, one m^ore innovation is necessary to make 
it all a good and easily managed arrangement. Instead of 
the ordinary pulleys on the line-shaft, friction pulleys, much 
the same as are used by paper makers on their super-calen- 
ders, and for other purposes, should be substituted. These 
friction pulleys should be managed from above by hand- 
wheel connections, the same as the hand-wheels for raising 
and lowering the stones. , Then, whenever it becomes neces- 
sary for the miller to stop any of his burrs, all that is neces- 
sary is to give the friction hand-wheel a few turns and it is 
done. This is a convenience that can never be thoroughly 
appreciated by millers until it is tried. 

We must not forget to here observe that the spindles 
should be at least eleven feet in length because we want 
everything to work well. The pulleys on spindles must be 
in accordance with size of stone, and as we in this case 
intend to use four feet burrs, our pulleys will not be less 
than forty-five inches in diameter. 



DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PROCESS MILL. 20l 

Passing from tlie basement into the story above, we 
observe ten runs of burrs in a line on a raised platform 
extending entirely across the building. On one side of the 
building, and running at right angles with the line of burrs, 
is a run of flour packers; aside from these nothing else of 
note is observable, except the various stands of elevators 
and the numerous spouts, all of which are arranged so as to 
be as little in the way as possible. The principal features on 
the third floor are the two six-reel bolting chests. One of 
these is for the first flour, and the other for middlings flour; 
one side for coarse and the other for fine middlings ; both 
sides are operated as described in the last chapter. It Avill 
be understood that these chests will extend up through the 
floor of the next story. In addition to the chests on the 
third floor there will be found extending across the mill, and 
over the burrs, a line of stock-hoppers for both wheat and 
middlings. 

On the fourth floor, and directly over the middlings 
stock hoppers, or as nearly so as possible, will be found 
arranged the purifiers, six of them at least; and for the pur- 
pose of making all as convenient as possible, these purifiers 
are set in two lines, one line over the other. The middlings 
that are not well enough finished on the upper machine are 
dropped into the one below instead of being returned back 
to the head of the first machine. These purifiers are classi- 
fied and clothed suitably for handling the fine and coarse 
middlings, each machine, or set of machines, taking care of 
its own. We have said " at least six purifiers," and we mean 
the largest size; if small machines, more ^vill have to be 
used ; and it might be that more would be needed anyway. 
That will depend on the manner of milling, location, etc. 
We place the purifiers one line over the other in this case 
because we have an eighteen feet story, and can do so unless 
the machines are exceptionally high. 

In the upper story the scalping reels or agitators, or 
whatever other devices we may use for taking the bran out 
of the flour, are located; so, also, we have a four-reel chest 



202 PRACTICAL Hints on mill building. 

for tlie purpose of handling the last cut-oiF from the main 
chests, as previously described, and any and all other stuff 
of a lower grade that may be necessary to send to it. So, 
also, on this floor, will be the middlings dusting reels, and 
perhaps the crushing rolls, two or three sets of which must 
be used for germ flatteners, and for partially reducing the 
middlings. In this mill it must be remembered we depend 
mainly on the stones for reduction ; reduction by other pro- 
cesses will be elsewhere described in the book. However, 
as this is only an imaginery mill, we do not wish to be arbi- 
trary about the location of the crushing rolls, but will state 
that the object is to save elevators and spouting. If they are 
on the upper floor their product can be spouted away into 
purifiers or bolting reels without being re-elevated, as would 
have to be done if they were on a lower floor. The same is 
true of the dusting reels; we want to make one elevating 
do; elevate into the reels and spout out into the purifiers. 

In the top story we will begin with the cleaning machin- 
ery. It will be assumed that the wheat has already passed 
through a receiving separator of some kind in an adjoining 
warehouse (we do not want to handle or store any wheat in 
the mill), and we will commence the cleaning system by 
planting a fine separator on the top floor; on the next floor 
below, and under the separator, will be placed a mild scour- 
ing-iron smutter, and below that again on the next floor a 
brush or finishing machine. The wheat will pass then unin- 
terruptedly from one machine to the other, and after passing 
through the last machine, can be elevated and deposited in 
the stock-hoppers. One set of cleaning machines may not 
be suflScient, and if not, another smutter and brush machine 
should be added, or two brush machines, leaving the second 
smutter out. This can be determined only by circumstances ; 
in some localities the wheat needs more cleaning than in 
others. The best manner for driving these smutters and 
brushes is to drop an upright shaft from above, and drive 
all from the same shaft. We object, though, to having what 
is known as a main upright shaft for driving all the machin- 



DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PROCESS MILL. 203 

ery on the upper floors. A belt running from the main line 
in the basement up to the fourth story is preferable. A 
main line in the fourth story, to which all the machinery on 
that floor, and above and below it can be attached, is a much 
better arrangement than to have a heavy, lumbering upright 
shaft running all the way up through the mill. 

As of course will have been noticed, this has not been 
intended as a detailed plan of a mill, but only a general 
plan, leaving the details to be arranged by a skilled mechanic 
to suit the taste, inclination and circumstances of those inter- 
ested in the construction of any such mill. We have this to 
say to all engaged in the construction of mills, that the more 
simple the arrangement of the machinery the better. ISTever 
put in a conveyor when a spout can be used, nor a stand of 
elevators if it can be avoided; do not put in a foot more 
shafting than is needed, nor any heavier than is required to 
do the work; neither put in an unnecessary wheel or pulley, 
because, besides the first cost, all this surplus machinerj^ 
requires power to run it, and power costs money. Study the 
art of doing the work with as little machinery as possible; 
but do not get to the other extreme of having driving 
machinery too light. A careful study of tables on gearing, 
belting, and shafting, in the first part of this book, will be 
of great value in this respect. 

We have noticed that some mechanics use a great deal 
more shafting and gearing, and heavier on the same kind of 
jobs, than others. Whether they were interested in the sale 
of such material or not, we do not know; but whether or 
not owners, or those who have to spend the money, ought to 
see to it that they are not imposed upon in this way, because 
it does not end with the first cost; it is ever after a cost for 
power and keeping up wear and tear. 



ARTICLE VIII. 

improved method of gradual reduction — jonathan 
mills' system. 

Until within a few years ago, all progress in milling was 
limited to the perfecting of mechanical appliances for the 
different operations which constituted the art. Wliile this 
must always remain the ease, to a large extent, the past few 
years have witnessed advances along another line, in the 
devising of new processes for reducing the wheat herry to 
flour and the invention of new machinery for carrying out 
these processes into practical results. So long as the old 
system of milling was in vogue, progress in the grinding of 
the wheat was barred after a certain limit was reached. 
Imperfections in the grinding machinery could be largely 
remedied, but the nature of the wheat-berry itself presented 
insurmountable obstacles to the improving of the flour beyond 
the limit that had already been attained. A knowledge of 
this fact led millers to adopt the new process; but one great 
difficulty in the way of success in this new departure was the 
employment of the means of the old system to bring out the 
methods of a new one. Besides, the new process is only a 
partial adoption of gradual reduction, this adoption being 
partial simply because the means of carrying out a complete 
system of gradual reduction, which would meet the commer- 
cial demands of the American miller, were wanting. It 
would not answer to adopt the Hungarian system for the 
reason that the low grade flours would be unsalable in the 
markets open to the millers of this country; and therefore 
our millers were compelled to be content with a relatively low 
per centage of high grade flours, or else sacrifice their profits 



GRADUAL EEDUCTION. 



205 



in ri-cli bran and cheap low grade flours. Mr. Jonathan Mills, 
inventor of the system of milling which bears his name, 
believing that the means employed would forever be inade- 
quate to meet the requirements of gradual reduction milling 
which could be profitably adopted by our mills, determined 
to perfect a series of machines that would enable the miller 
to carry out in practice what science shows to be desirable. 
Before entering upon. an account of these machines, a 
view of the wheat-berry may throw some light upon the 
ends held in view by Mr. Mills' system. The accompanying 
engraving ( Fig. 1 ) shows a portion of the cross section of a 

grain of wheat. Letters 
A, C, D and E show the 
difl'erent bran coatings. 
Letter F shows the out- 
er layer of albumen in 
large cells, and letter Gr 
the regular starch cells 
in the interior of the ber- 
ry. At the lower end 
of the wheat-grain is the 
germ, chit or embryo, as 
it is variously called. 
These are the elements 
with which one has to deal in the reduction of wheat to 
flour. The object of scientific milling is to exclude the bran 
and germ from the product of the grinding or reduction, and 
to incorporate in the flour the albumen and starch cells. A 
process which accomplishes this, therefore, must be far differ- 
ent from grinding, and employ more accurate and delicate 
means. While it is easy to produce, by ordinary appliances, 
a flour which meets the requirements above named, only a 
small per centage can be so obtained, while the demands of 
economy are that the yield of scientific milling be larger, so 
that it may be profitable. It is here where the principal 
obstacle occurred. To gradually disintegrate the wheat 
would necessarily leave the bran richer thau the miller could 




1. Cross Section of Wheat. Drawn 
with Camera Lucida. X 200 
Diameters. 



206 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

afford to have it, while re-grinding the bran would produce 
a flour of very low grade. Faced by all these problems, Mr. 
Mills saw that in the first place a succession of operations 
must be resorted to in order to reduce the wheat and obtain 
a large per centage of middlings (the albumen and starch 
cells), without any violent or tearing action which would 
comminute the bran. Then it was apparent that, as these 
successive reductions would leave the offal rich in nutritious 
materials, some device must be contrived to remove these 
valuable elements in such shape that they might be largely 
saved in the form of middlings, and re-ground into high 
grade' flour. Finally, a perfected mill for re-grinding the 
middlings seemed a fitting cap-stone for the system. In a 
word, the inventor's aim was: 1. To produce a large per 
centage of middlings without comminuting the bran, as is 
done more or less in ordinary new process milling, and the 
Hungarian system mth corrugated rolls. 2. To produce a 
wheat flour and a low grade flour that would be readily sala- 
ble, since the corresponding flours made by the Hungarian 
system would find no market in this country. 3. To save 
from the oflal the large per centage of middlings wasted 
entirely with the bran as feed, or made into low grade fiour 
where the millstone is used to re-grind the bran. For the 
successful accomplishment of these aims he designed, after 
much patient thought and experiment, a degerminator-grad- 
ual-reduction machine, a bran machine and an improved 
rigid under-runner middlings mill. The construction and 
operation of these several machines will appear more clearly 
in the following descriptions and illustrations. 

It may, however, be proper to remark here, by way of 
preface, that this system produces from winter wheat about 
sixty-five per cent, of patent flour, thirty per cent, of wheat 
flour of superior quality, and only about five per cent, of low 
grade, while from hard spring wheat it produces from seven- 
ty-five to eighty per cent, of patent, fifteen to twenty of 
superior wheat or clear flour, and five per cent, low g;rade, 



GRADUAL REDUCTION. 207 

A view of the process as a whole will materially aid in 
understanding the parts taken in the system by the several 
machines. For this purpose it is necessary to take account 
only of the gradual reduction and bran machines, as the 
remaining steps in the operation could be performed by mill- 
stones, porcelain rolls, or smooth-chilled iron rolls. A com- 
plete set of reduction machines comprises six, for which one 
double bran machine suffices to clean the offal. The system 
comprises five successive reductions or breakings on the 
reduction machines, and two other reductions or cleanings 
on the bran machine. The wheat is first separated and 
smutted in the usual way, and then sized by means of a roll- 
ing wire screen. 

First reduction : The large wheat is sent to one reduc- 
tion machine, and the small wheat to another, in which the 
kernels are split longitudinally through the crease. The 
split wheat from both machines is sent to a wire scalping 
reel, in order to take out the flour middlings and germ 
obtained by this operation. This is called the degerminat- 
ing process, or first reduction. Second redaction: The split 
wheat is sponted from the tail of the first wire reel to the 
second reduction machine which reduces the split wheat 
lightly, and loosens the germ from any kernals not removed 
by the first operation. This material is then scalped on 
another Avire reel the same as the first, in order to take out 
the fiour middlings and germ obtained by second reduction. 
Third reduction : The broken wheat from the second wire 
reel, goes to the third reduction machine and is scalped on a 
third wire reel as before, taking out the flour and middlings. 
Fourth reduction: The broken wheat then passes from the 
third wire reel to the fourth reduction machine and is reduc- 
ed still more, and the chop is sent to a fourth wire reel to 
bolt out the flour and middlings as in the third. Fifth reduc- 
tion: The broken wheat from the fourth wire reel, now 
nearly reduced to bran, is next sent to the fifth and last 
reduction machine where it is finished, the chop being sent 
to another scalping reel, and the flour and middlings made 
on this reduction taken out, 



208 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



The Ijran is then sent to one of the Jonathan Mills' hran 
machines (shoAvn in the engraving) first to one side, where 
it undergoes the first operation of cleaning. The flour and 

Fig. 2. 




middlings loosened from the bran are scalped off. The bran 
is then sent to the other side of the bran machine, and the 
flour and middlings scalped out. The bran being thus finish- 
ed is sent to the bran room. The wheat has now been 
reduced to fiour middlings and clean bran. 

The flour middlings and germ from the scalping reels of 
the first and second reductions are sent to a bolting reel to 
be dressed, the flour here obtained being a low grade, while 
the middlings and germ are separated in the usual manner. 
The flour and middlings from the third, fourth and fifth 



GRADUAL REDUCTION. 



209 



reductions are sent to a different chest of reels to be dressed. 
The flour obtained is the first or wheat flour, and is pro- 
nounced by competent judges and experts to be of the very 

Fig. S. 




best quality as to color and strength. The flour and mid- 
dlings from the bran goes to a bolting reel where the flour 
is taken off" and sent to the packer with the low grade of the 
first and second reductions, while the middlings are sent 
with those made by the various reductions. 

The first machine used in this system has the double 
purpose of removing the germ and reducing the interior of 
the wheat-berry to middlings preparatory to grinding them. 
The same apparatus essentially is used for all of the five 
reductions, the only difference being that the disks E and F 
are adjusted more closely in each successive operation, and 
that in the machines used after the first reduction the disk- 
faces (V, "W, X, Fig'. 5) are modified by extending the skirt 

16 



210 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



corrugations for about an inch down into the depressed 
bosom. 

The machine consists essentially of two disks of chilled 
iron, each 16 inches in diameter, with marginal rounded 
corrugations and smooth surfaces, and a depressed bosom in 
both disks. The lower disk is the runner and the upper is 
stationary, and provided with a central feed opening. The 



Fig. 4. 




/^;Mr^/-/r~n///.;;;'/.;/'M^M.^.-;^fn^-. 



V\in,i //,/'/ ',/'7"/i////w rin /// '/m 



'iN\:NIILLEFI.EXC. 




whole machine is constructed of iron (see perspective. Fig. 
2) and all the parts which act upon the grain are smoothly 
polished. 

Referring to the sectional view of the machine (Fig. 3) 
its general construction is readily understood. A, A, is the 
frame, B is the spindle-head, the foot of which rests in the 
oil-pot, K ; to this spindle-head is fitted the lower or revolv- 
ing disk, F (see enlarged view. Fig. 4), which is raised and 
lowered by the lighter-bar, H, operated by the hand-wheel 
G. C is the cap-plate, into which the stationary disk, E, is 
fitted, and by which it is trammed to the revolving disk, F. 
The hopper, D, is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered 
at will, in order to increase or diminish the feed, M is the 



GRADUAL REDUCTION. 



211 



delivery spout; T is the tallow-pot; S is the set-screw to 
operate the gib, R. 

The relative position of the two disks, E and F, is shown 
in Fig. 4. Both disks are depressed in the face from the 
center to within a few inches of the periphery so as to leave 
space for the free passage of the grain in a horizontal posi- 
tion or upon its side, but not otherwise. The skirt of the 
disk, as shown in Fig. 5, is divided into furrows by corruga- 

Fia. 5. 




tions, V, V, having a draft of about three inches. The lead- 
ing farrows, X, X, extend from the corrugations to the draft 
circle. The entire surface of both discs are polished as 
smoothly as possible, and all the edges carefally rounded off. 
The machine is operated at a speed of from 500 to 700 
revolutions per minute. The centrifugal force leads the 
grain along the furrows, X, X, in a horizontal position, and 
feeds it over the bosom, W, to the depressions between the 
corrugations, Y, Y. The speed of the surface on which it 
rests causes it to travel up the incline of the corrugations or 
ridges, Y, Y, and in its ascent it is rotated until its creased 
side bears on one or the other of the disc surfaces and the 



212 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



pressure of the smooth, surface splits the berry open and 
releases the germ. It is obvious that the smooth surfaces of 
the disks and the rounded edges of the ridges are necessary 
in order that the berry may not be broken at once, and the 
bran rasped off and mingled with the interior parts of the 
wheat. The action of the disks upon the wheat-berry is 
accurately shown in Fig. 6. The small amount of flour 
detached in the degerminating process is low grade as above 
stated. 

The succeeding reductions are made upon the same prin- 
ciple, the chief difference being that the disks are adjusted 
more closely together at each succeeding operation, so that 




the rounded edges of the ridges or corrugations are nearer 
and nearer to each other as the reduction of the wheat pro- 
ceeds. The essential difference between such a reduction 
and the reduction by rolls, or millstones, is, while with 
smooth rolls the berry would be squeezed, and with corruga- 
ted rolls, or millstones, it would be cut or rasped, with the 
disks in question the berry is rolled out, or granulated, the 
result being the large production of middlings above stated, 
while the bran is kept intact and the gluey coating not 
disturbed. 

The utility of the bran machine, and the novel principle 
upon which it is based, entitle it to a full description. The 
machine is made entirely of metal, and occupies a floor space 
of 37x37 inches, and 46 inches high. 

The sectional view of the bran machine (Fig. 8) has one 
plate, F, cut away, showing part of one side of the disk or 
sweep, H, IT; also part of one circle of stationary pins fixed 



GHADUAL REDtrCTlON. 



213 



in plate, F. D, D, shows one of the curved oblique wings of 
pins in the sweep or disk, and the holes in the sweep show 
where the other wings are. The dotted lines on the sweep 




show the position of the circles of stationary pins that are 
fixed in plate, F, while the holes shown in plate, G, G, show 
the position of the circle of stationary pins in it. K is a 
section of the curb showing the inner corrugated surface. 
The arrow shows the direction of the revolving disk or 
sweep. The curved triangle, A, C, B, shows how the bran 



214 



PEACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDliSfG. 



is gathered by the oblique wings represented by A, B, or D, 
and pressed and rubbed against and through the circles of 
stationary pins represented by C, or E. The sides are form- 
ed by two parallel circular plates of cast iron, separated by a 
cyrmdrical iron curb, upon which they are clamped by bolts 

Fig. 8. 




passing through the marginal flanges outside the curb. This 
forms a shallow cylindrical chamber, about thirty-two inches 
in diameter and five inches deep, communicating by a central 
opening to a hopper on each side, and provided with margin- 
al delivery-spouts at the bottom, one for each side. This 
cylindrical chamber is divided perpendicularly by a solid 
circular iron plate or revolving disk or sweep. This disk or 
sweep is keyed on to a horizontal two-and-a-half inch shaft, 
that has long, substantial journals on either side, and upon 
one end of which the driving pulley is placed. The bear- 
ings are long, and substantially supported by brackets, cast 
or secured upon the plates forming the sides of the machine. 



GRADUAL HEDUCTIOjSr. 215 

On the inner face of each of the stationary side plates, 
eight rows of steel pins are fixed in concentric circles, the 
circles being about one-and-one-half inch apart, and each 
circle of pins in one plate being directly opposite the corres- 
ponding circle in the other plate. These steel pins are from 
one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and are 
set from one-sixteenth of an inch apart in the outer circle to 
say four-sixteenths of an inch apart in the inner circle. 
These pins are about two inches in length, and extend 
inward toward the revolving sweep or disk already described, 
only allowing sufficient space for the circular sweep or 
disk to revolve. These circles of pins form stationary con- 
centric, annular, slotted partitions, through each of which 
the bran, fed in at the centre, must pass. 

The revolving sweep or disk is laid off into twelve or 
more radial sections. In every alternate section, curved, 
oblique, transverse rows of steel pins are securely fixed, 
extending an equal distance on each side (see D), about two 
inches, or so as nearly to touch the inner face of the station- 
ary side plates. These pins are set about one-eighth of an 
inch apart, in each row. The rows themselves form oblique, 
curved, slotted wings, upon each side of the sweep or disk. 
The slotted wings move around in the circular spaces formed 
by the adjacent circles of fixed pins in the stationary side 
plates. As the sweep or disk revolves, these curved wings 
gather the bran and rub and force it outward, through the 
stationary circles of pins. The inner surface of the curb has 
transverse ribs or corrugations, near which pass the outer 
curved rows of -pins at the circumference of the sweep or disk. 

From the foregoing description, the operation of the 
machine will be readily understood. The sweep or disk is 
made to revolve rapidly, by means of a belt on the driving 
pulley. The bran is fed into the hopper, on each side, and 
passes into the machine at the centre. The hub of the sweep 
or disk is provided with solid wings, which sweep the bran 
outward, and force or rub it through the first or inner circle 
of pins. The pins in this circle are made heavy, for the 



216 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



purpose of arresting any hard substances, and of breaking 
up any dough-balls that may have formed in the bran. 
Having passed the first circle of stationary pins, the bran is 
gathered by the first or inner series of oblique rows of pins 
(or curved wings) in the revolving disk and crowded, rubbed 




and forced outward, through the second fixed circle of pins. 
The next series of curved wings then gather and rub the 
bran outward, through the third fixed circle of pins, and so 
on, until the outer fixed circle of pins is passed. Here the 
corrugations on the inner face of the curb operate to restrain 
the bran against the action of the outer curved rows of mov- 
ing pins or wings, and continue the attrition or rubbing, 



Gradual reduction, 21*7 

until it is discharged tlirough the spouts below. It will thus 
be seen that the violent rubbing of the bran upon bran and 
against the smooth steel pins is very efFeetive, while, in a 
mass so yielding, the pressure cannot be at any point so vio- 
lent as to destroy the granular form of the middlings detach- 
ed, nor can it comminute or pulverize the bran. Each side 
of this machine is a duplicate of the other, and yet quite 
separate, distinct and independent. Each side may act on 
different qualities or conditions of bran, simultaneously, and 
at the same time keep them separate. 

The bran from high grinding requires two operations, in 
order to clean thoroughly. It is spouted into the hopper 
on one side of the machine, as it comes from the bolting 
chest, passes through the machine and out of the discharge 
spout at the bottom, on the same side. It is then sent to a 
scalper, to take out the flour and middlings that have been 
scoured off. From the tail of this scalper, the bran is spout- 
ed into the hopper on the other side of the machine and 
undergoes a second operation. From there it is sent to 
another scalper which takes out the flour and middlings 
scoured off by the second . operation. All bran from hard 
wheats treated in this way will be perfectly clean, but bran 
from soft wheats should, in most cases, be afterward sent to 
a brush bran duster. The capacity of this machine is from 
twelve to fifteen tons of bran in twenty- four hours, and is 
driven by a four to six-inch belt. 

* The last of these machines used in this system is the 
" Chicago Middlings Mill," which is the result of Mr. Mills' 



* The author of this work disclaims any intention of indicat- 
ing a preference for any particular make of middlings mill, or 
other special machine. The above mentioned mill, and other 
machines referred to and described in this article, are so described 
because of the fact of their being new, and their association 
and connection with the system presented. After a careful exam- 
ination and investigation of the isystem as a whole, I am satisfied 
that it is valuable, but do not wish to be understood as assuming 
that other middlings mills, or other bran machines, will not work 
just as well, even in that system. 



^18 PRACT^ICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

experiments for a number of years witli rigid under-runner 
mills. Mr. Mills' theory is (and he claims to have fully 
demonstrated it in practice ) , that rollers and oscillating mill- 
stones are incapable of producing the perfectly fine, round, 
even granulation necessary for the production of the highest 
possible grade of flour, on account of defects of principle 
and operation. He therefore began a series of experiments, 
in order to remedy the defects of ordinary under-runner 
mills, and w^ith such success that he is enabled to use thirty 
and thirty-six inch stones in the Chicago middlings, without 
end-shake or oscillation of any kind, the two things antago- 
nistic to even and perfect granulation with millstones. 

One of the first peculiarities of the machine is that it 
reverses the ordinary relation of the spindle to the mill stone, 
for the former remains fixed while the latter revolves around 
it. In the sectional view, (Fig. 10), A, A, is a stationary 
steel spindle, firmly supported at the bottom and top, so that 
no lateral movement, or " spring," is possible. The runner, 
C, C, revolves around this spindle, being secured in the bed 
plate, B, B. A long hub or sleeve is cast solid with the bed 
plate. This hub or sleeve is bored out and provided with an 
extended bearing accurately fitting the steel spindle. A, A. 
This bearing is furnished with broad keys or gibs, X, X, 
which can be tightened by the set-screws, 0, O, in order to 
take up any wear. . By this means, the amount of friction is 
reduced to the lowest possible amount, all "side-shake" is 
avoided, and the greatest possible accuracy in running is 
secured. 

The combination for preventing end-shake is both ingen- 
ious and eflfective. Upon the upper end of the hub or sleeve 
of the bed-plate, B, B, is secured a cap-plate, Q, Q, and bear- 
ing upon this is a long sleeve, Z, (Fig. 11), accurately bored 
out to fit the upper end of the spindle. The bore of the 
upper part of this sleeve is smaller than that of the balance 
of the sleeve, and is threaded to fit a screw cut upon the 
upper end of the spindle. Above this is a cap or check-nut, 
S. This nut, as well as the sleeve, is tightened or loosened 



GRADUAL REDUCTION. 

Fig. 10. 



219 



^20 



PRACKTlOAti HIi;fl*S ON MILL BUlliDIJSfG. 



by means of a spanner-wrench, and by adjusting them 

the cap-plate, Q, Q, which is fastened to the 

sleeve of the bed-plate, all "end-shake" is Fig. 11. 

positively done away with, while, at the same 

time, the freedom of the running stone is not 

interfered with, allowing, or rather causing 

it to run in a perfect plane. 

The stationary spindle. A, A, is iirmly 
keyed in the bridge-pot, J, J, by the pin, I. 
The bridge-pot has a vertical movement 
through the cross-tree, but is so accurately 
fitted that no lateral movement is possible. 
The upper end of the bridge-pot is flared out 
to form a large oil-cup, which catches all the 
oil and prevents its being thrown out and 
wasted. An adjustable annular step, G, Gr, 
is fixed to the stationary steel spindle, and 
upon the lower end of the hub or sleeve of 
the bed-plate is fixed a foot-piece, making a 
very easy running and a lasting step for the 
support of the running stone. The upper 
end of the spindle, A, A, is supported against 
lateral vibration by a cross-tree in the upper 
or cap plate of the machine, P, P, which 
forms the curb and supports the stationary, 
or bed stone. The bridge-tree in this cap- 
plate is bored out to fit the sleeve which fits 
over the upper end of the spindle, leaving it 
free to move vertically, while fitting so accu- 
rately as to prevent any side play. 

The upper, or stationary stone, D, D, is 
securely fastened in a strong flanged ring, F. 
Three equidistant screws, E, operated by 
hand-wheels, pass through the top plate and 
through the flanged rina;, F, and work into 
nuts placed in recesses on the under side of \ ^ 
the flange. The hand-wheels bear upon the ^' 



to 



GRADUAL EEDUCTION. 221 

top-plate, and between the plate and the flanged ring are 
heavy rubber cushions, placed in suitable recesses in the top- 
plate. By means of the screws, E, the upper stone may 
be accurately trammed, and the rubber cushions will yield 
sufficiently to allow the passage of any hard foreign sub- 
stances which may happen to get between the stones. 

A neat feeding device placed at the bottom of the hopper, 
"W, operated by the lever, U, feeds the middlings uniformly 
upon the revolving plate, Q, Q, from which they pass between 
the stones. The lower, or running stone, is driven by a 
pulley, R, placed on the extended hub of the bed-plate, B. 
The bridge-pot, carrying with it the stationary spindle, the 
running stone and the nut and sleeve to prevent end-shake, 
is raised or lowered as required by means of the lighter-bar, 
K, hand-wheel and lighter-screw, M, L. An automatic oiler, 
T, is placed upon the upper end of the stationary spindle, 
and through the hole, shown by the dotted lines in the spin- 
dle, supplies oil to all the running parts of the mill. 

The points of superiority of this system may be briefly 
summarized in conclusion, as follows: In the process of 
gradual reduction the germ is removed from the wheat with- 
out being broken, and therefore the discoloration of the flour 
caused by incorporating the germ in it is avoided. In a 
similar manner the bluish dirt in the crease of the berry is 
taken out before the wheat is reduced to flour and therefore 
the first and second reductions constitute a cleaning opera- 
tion as well as a step towards flouring the wheat. The 
importance of this can readily be appreciated when it is 
remembered that the germ and bluish dirt once mingled 
with the flour cannot be removed by any system of bolting. 
Another important point is the fact that comminution of the 
bran is avoided, and the small particles of bran which are 
necessarily pulverized when millstones, or corrugated rolls, 
are used on the wheat, are not produced by these reduction 
machines, and are consequently not found in the flour. 
This, with the forgoing facts, account for the extreme 
whiteness and clearness of the flour made by this system of 



222 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



milling. The use of the bran machine effects a large saving 
in material, which can be utilized in the high grade flour, 
while the improved middlings mill secures an even and per- 
fect granulation of the middlings produced by the reduction 
machines. 




ARTICLE IX. 

THE HUNGARIAN SYSTEM OF MILLING WITH ROLLERS. 

The following description of the Hungarian system of 
roller milling, which is taken from a paper read by J. 
Ingleby, before a mechanical association in Manchester, 
England, is not as complete as we would desire, but covered 
as these things all are by patents, and the great show of 
secrecy in relation to the matter in this country, especially, 
prevents the obtaining of all the information we would 
desire ; but trust there is sufficient to enable the reader to 
get a fair insight into the matter : 

"I have undertaken, at the request of your worthy Presi- 
dent, to direct your attention — in the short time at my dis- 
posal I cannot do more — to a subject connected with a very 
important, if not the most important branch of manufacture, 
viz : that which provides us all, from noble to artisan alike, 
with our daily bread. However unworthily I may describe 
it, a process which claims to produce the " staiF of life " of a 
better quality and at a less cost than heretofore, cannot fail 
to be of some interest to you. Moreover, this question of 
milling with rollers instead of stones is just now agitating 
the whole milling interest in this country; for, the British 
miller has just awoke to the conviction that to meet the 
competition of cousin Jonathan m 'price, and of the Hunga- 
rian in quality, demands a radical change in his mode of 
manufacture. America — with always an enormous surplus 
of cheap grain, and with numerous and immense milling 
establishments specially adapted for the unvarying material 
close at hand, directed by most shrewd and energetic minds, 
aiid favored by cheap freights aud the natural preponderance 



324 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

in favor of the shipment of flour instead of grain — America 
is formidable in prie^ but Hungary — with twelve giajiit mills 
in one town alonsj producing nine million hundredweights 
of flour per annum, selling their low qualities at home and 
sending to England one-and-one-half million hundredweights 
per annum of the very finest flour, such as no English miller 
can produce, but must buy in order to mix with and render 
salable his own product — Hungary is still more formidable 
in quality. When our native millers' ordinary article is sell- 
ing at 40s. per sack, America can afibrd to send quite as 
good flour at 26s. to 30s., and yet Hungary can tempt us to 
buy her unapproachable brands at 50s. to 60s. per sack. 
The diflference on either side represents a very considerable 
disadvantage to the English miller. 

" In addition to the above considerations, I hope my sub- 
ject will specially commend itself to those present insomuch 
as the introduction of roller milling means a greatly 
increased employment of machinery in our mills, and the 
addition of another branch to the science of mechanical 
engineering in this country. 

" It will first be necessary to devote a little attention to 
the object and usual mode of grinding corn. The object is, 
broadly speaking, to reduce the grain by bruising, grinding, 
or pulverizing into such a state of fineness as is required for 
the purpose of making bread of the quality demanded by 
the public at large. In the earliest ages it was natural to use 
the friction of two stones, one upon the other, for this pur- 
pose; all savage nations are found doing so to this day; but 
whilst civilized man has long since discarded all other imple- 
ments of the "stone age," such as stone hammers, axes, 
weapons, etc. — and has successively advanced through an 
age of bronze into one of iron, out of which he now seems 
emerging into an age of steel — no other implement but the 
millstone has ever, until our own times, been generally 
employed for grinding corn for bread. Its antiquity and 
unchangeable construction are truly marvellous. In the 
time of Job the hardnces of the nether millstone — the bot- 





No. I. Eureka Separator 



No. 2. Eureka Smut and 

Separating Machine. 




No. 3. Eureka Brush Finishing- 
Machine. 



No. 4. Silver Creek Flour 
Packer. 



SEPARATING, BRUSHING AND PACKING MACHINES. 

Made by HOWES, BABCOCK & CO., Silver Creek, N. Y. 
(See Appendix, page xxiv.) 



THE HUNGAKIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 225 

torn fixed one — was proverbial, and when the doom of the 
first-born of Egypt was pronounced, not even the son of the 
"maidservant that is behind the mill," whirling round the 
upper stone, could escape. And still the chant of the women 
at the mill is to be heard in the East, and though in the 
West we have altered the mode of application and the char- 
acter of the motive power, we cling to the use of the upper 
and nether millstones, and almost regard the substitution of 
any other means of grinding corn as sacrilege. And as long 
as the bread eater was satisfied with "whole meal" bread, 
and flour meant nothing but ground grain, more or less fine, 
no better implement than the millstone was required; but 
this is not now the case. We began by desiring closer 
grinding and "fine wheaten flour; " then we thought it better 
without the bran and invented wire sieves to dress this ofi", 
and having thus embarked on a course of dressing and siev- 
ing we next took out the fine bran and the coarse sharps; 
then, when silk dressing cloth appeared, the fine sharps; 
and eventually we insist upon having our bread of the finest 
and whitest, sweetest and strongest flour that can be made. 
It is this demand for what is called ' color,' ' strength,' and 
'flavor' in flour that has doomed the millstone and called 
up the roller mill. 

" The change that has taken place in flour milling is both 
curious and instructive. The ordinary miller in this coun- 
try endeavors by the shape of the surface or ' dress ' of his 
millstones, and by bringing his stones almost close together, 
i. e. grinding loiu, to reduce as much of the grain to flour at 
one passage as is possible. This endeavor is limited on the 
one hand by the whiteness of the flour required, because 
with stones too low a large quantity of bran would be ground 
up flne with the flour and discolor it, and on the other hand 
by the fact that the heat developed in grinding with the 
stones close together would certainly spoil and often fire the 
flour. ]N"evertheless, he manages generally to get some eighty 
per cent, of best flour out of wheat which only contains sev- 
enty to seventy-five per cent, at the first — or rather he grinds 

17 



226 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

up five to ten per cent, of bran so fine that it is obliged to 
go with his flour. 

"Besides flour and bran the miller obtains a small propor- 
tion of unground kernel of wheat, in a granular state, of 
about the fineness of fine sand, and of course mixed up with 
bran of the same size, so that any attempts to regrind it, as 
it is, result in flour so 'dark' as to be unsalable, except as 
food for cattle. This granular product is known as ' sharps ' 
or ' middlings,' and of late years a machine, called a ' mid- 
dlings purifier,' has been invented and brought to great per- 
fection by which these sharps are exposed, in various ways, 
to the action of a current of air, which carries away the light 
bran and dust and leaves the middlings or particles of kernel 
pure and white, in a suitable state for regrinding. It was 
then a considerable revelation to many a miller to find that 
what he had been selling as pig food, and endeavoring to 
produce as little of as possible, made the very best of flour 
when purified and reground by itself. This revelation pro- 
duced a revolution, for ere long millers became convinced 
that the true method of milling would be to reverse the old 
practice, and instead of producing at once much flour and 
little middlings, to make much middlings and little flour. • 
The first step in this direction was naturally to set the mill- 
stones further apart, or ' grind higher,' also, to hollow them 
out in the center and thus grind less closely, but then there 
came the difficulty that by doing so the bran was not cleaned, 
but had a deal of flour adhering to it. This necessitated a 
regrinding of the bran, and the flour resulting therefrom 
was of very poor quality, unsuitable for the English market, 
and representing a loss of yield which simply prohibited the 
'high grinding' system to the average English miller. In 
Hungary, on the contrary, it was generally adopted. The 
stones were set and dressed to produce much semolina and 
middlings; the best of these when purified very carefully 
and thoroughly, were ground on special stones, and the 
beautiful white flour resulting shipped off for sale at high 
prices to fastidioiis John Bull, whilst the residvie of dark 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 227 

flour found a ready buyer in the numerous peasantry on the 
spot, so that, what to the English miller was loss suited the 
Hungarian from sky to ground. 

"The employment of stones as the grinding agent still 
entailed a considerable loss in color and quality. However 
high the stones could be advantageously set some bran is 
ground down with the flour; however carefully and expen- 
sively purified, the middlings contain some branny particles 
still, and the heat evolved in stone grinding always remains 
a troublesome and injurious element. Therefore the Hunga- 
rian millers sought a substitute for the stones which should 
produce more middlings, and also reduce these to flour with- 
out pulverizing the bran, which should do this without heat, 
and, if possible, with economy in power. It was natural to 
have recourse to the gentle roller friction and pressure of two 
cylinders in place of the more acute grinding action of two 
flat stones. A moment's consideration of the lengthened 
stay and travel of a grain of wheat between and across the 
sharp stones before it escapes at the periphery as flour, com- 
pared with the short momentaneous nip between two rollers 
will convince that the latter method will grind cooler, attack 
the bran much less, and require less power, although the 
total reduction of the wheat will be more gradual, and take 
a longer time. The flour will, however, retain all its natural 
flavor and properties. 

" Of course the first attempts at the application of rollers 
were failures in many places, but the principle was recog- 
nixed as right and practical; especially in grinding semolina 
or middlings, a great advantage is on the side of the rollers, 
which crush into powder the grains of unground kernel, but 
only flatten the tougher particles of bran, thus rendering 
them easy to dress out of the flour, and removing the neces- 
sity for such excessive puriflcation as is required for stone 
grinding. The roller mill therefore soon became an estab- 
lished fact, and a large mill was established in Pesth, which 
worked entirely with rollers, and notwithstanding the great 
improvements since made, still holds its own, supplies flour 



228 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

which obtains top prices and thus proves the superiority, 
even of defective roller mills, over stones. 

"I cannot now do more than indicate some of the 
improvements successively made in these mills until the 
present types were reached, and then conclude by a rather 
more detailed explanation of the construction and applica- 
tion of the one with which I am more intimately acquainted. 

" The first rollers were made of ordinary cast iron, placed 
in pairs side by side, pair above pair, and with rigid bear- 
ings: generally only one roll was driven, the other being 
turned by the friction of the wheat passing between the two 
rolls. It was soon discovered that ordinary iron wore away 
very fast under the action of the silica accompanying the 
husk of wheat, and chilled iron of the hardest and toughest 
quality, has, after much experiment, been found to be the 
only material which gives a really satisfactory result. Then 
the pressure was found insufficient and too rigid, so that the 
rolls have now been provided with increased and elastic 
pressure; also the piles of rolls one above the other proved 
too cumbrous and expensive, so that smaller mills containing 
but two or four rolls were generally adopted. Then the 
relative velocity of the rollers was discovered to be of great 
importance. At first the rollers had the same circumferen- 
tial velocity, but experience taught that conspicuously better 
results were obtained by employing what is known as difier- 
ential speed, and making one roller run considerably faster 
than the other. It stands indeed to reason that the smooth 
rollers working by mere direct dead pressure press the fiour, 
so to say, forcibly into the bran, and consolidate it into cakes 
or flakes, whereas with differential speed a kind of abrasive 
taction, scraping or pushing the flour off the bran is pro- 
duced. Carefully conducted experiments have proved that 
direct pressure without differential speed produces one-third 
less result than the same pressure with it. Smooth rollers 
also soon gave place to fluted or grooved ones for reducing 
or granulating the wheat, the result being a great saving of 
power, for the power consumed in crushing grain by direct 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 



229 



Fig. /. 



pressure of smooth rollers luithout differential speed is exactly 
double that required to reduce grain between fluted rollers with 
differential motion. The section of rollers ordinarily used 
for this purpose is shown in Fig. 
1. The grooves or flutings are put 
on with a twist, like the grooves 
in a gun. 'Rifled' rollers might 
therefore be an appropriate name 
for them. The twist has the effect 
of preventing the grooves of one 
roller from catching within those 
of the other, even when close 
together, for those of the quicker 
speeded roller continually over- 
take those of the slower one, pro- 
ducing an action which would be 
a kind of shearing if the rollers 
really touched each other. But 
this not being the case, it really 
consists in twisting the parts of 
the grain against each other, the 
sharp corners of the flutings hold- 
ing the outside of the grains fast, 
and, as it were, pushing the opposite sides ot each grain in 
opposite directions, thus opening them, and disintegrating 
their contents. Such rifled rollers can now be produced by 
special machinery in the very hardest chilled iron, and last 
for jears without sharpening or grinding. 

"A great impetus was given to the introduction of roller 
mills in 1874, by the invention by Mr. Frederick "Weg- 
mann, of the Porcelain Boiler Mill, in which an entirely new 
material, viz. : porcelain or biscuit China was used for the 
rollers, and the whole mechanism was very much improved 
between 1874 and 1876, and converted into a much more 
serviceable and sensible tool than had hitherto been made. 
The effect produced by the introduction of porcelain rollers 
was very great, in fact unreasonably so. Their attractive 




230 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BtJILDiNG!. 

appearance, their dull fine granular surface, the very beau- 
ideal of what a miller's stones should be, the novelty of the 
thing, and the really splendid work they perform whilst new 
upon middlings, created quite a strong prejudice in their 
favor, and certainly greatly facilitated the adoption of the 
roller system. 

" Many mills also with iron rollers are made upon the same 
principle, but Mr. Gustave Daverio, of Zurich, who had con- 
siderable experience in the construction and manufacture of 
Mr. Wegmann's mill, invented a new form of roller mill, in 
which I think you will recognize some great improvements. 
He had the happy idea of using three rollers only, instead of 
four, placing them vertically one upon the other, and thus 
obtain with three rollers (consequently with six journals 
only) the same effect as the horizontal mills with four rollers 
and eight journals. To effect this, an apparatus had to be 
contrived to direct the material from the hopper in two differ- 
ent streams, one of which to pass between the top and cen- 
ter roller, and the other between the center and bottom 
roller. Several devices were tried ineffectually, until Mr. 
Daverio hit upon the idea of employing what may be called 
a cross channel piece, see X, Fig. 2, which allows the mate- 
rial ground between the top and center rollers to fall down 
past the two lower rollers, and conducts the material to be 
ground between the center and bottom rollers, right across 
or through the first named stream of ground material, into 
the desired place between the two lower rollers, without the 
two streams mingling in any way. With the application of 
this beautiful device, the use of the three-high-roller mill 
became possible and successful. The saving of one quarter 
in power by the elimination of one roller out of four is self 
evident. But it is even much larger than appears at first 
thought, for the top and bottom rollers being made to press 
equally from opposite sides against the middle roller, it follows 
that the friction of the two journals of this roller is almost 
entirely annihilated or counterbalanced. There remains, 
therefore, virtually only the friction of the top and bottom 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 



231 



journals, i. e. other things being equal, the friction in good 
three roller mills, is by these circumstances, bound to be 

Fig. 2. 




only about half that of the four roller horizontal mills. 

"But a further step remained to be achieved, viz.: the 
further reduction of friction or power consumed for driving 



232 PRACl^ICAL HINTS ON MILL BttlLDliirGJ. 

these mills. For this purpose a very ingenious contrivance 
is used by a firm called Granz & Co. It consists of placing 
upon each of the outer ends of the shafts of the top and 
bottom rollers, on either side of the frame, a small ring, and 
on these rings a large steel hoop is sprung, so as to embrace 
the two roll shafts with the requisite pressure, whilst they in 
turn cause the hoop to revolve by their rotation and thus 
relieve the friction of the bearings. To regulate the tension 
of the hoop, a small roller is brought to bear on a third 
point on its internal circumference, which roller can be 
moved in or out to tighten or slacken the anti-friction hoop. 
This way of effecting the object is hardly of much practical 
use. The hoops in question, owing to their great diameter, 
must have an undesirable degree of elasticity, and they are 
themselves continually subjected to a regular cold-rolling 
process, combined with a tendency to take a triangular 
shape, w^hich must cause them in a very short time to deteri- 
orate and become practically useless. Mr. Daverio has 
solved this problem in an entirely different and very ingen- 
ious way, as shown in Fig. 3. He carries the journals ot 
the upper and lower rollers in bearings. A, A, forming part 
of the bell-crank levers, B, B, which have their fulcra at C, 
C. The pressure of the swing rollers in these bearings is 
taken up by the friction rollers, D, D, and transferred to the 
small steel pins, E, E, upon which they revolve. Supposing 
for instance the diameter of the rollers, D, D, to be six times 
as large as the diameter of the pins, E, E, then the power 
required to overcome the frictional resistance between the 
said roller and its pin will be only the sixth part of the 
power that would otherwise be necessary for overcoming 
the friction between the journal and its brasses. The 
brasses shown in the sectional view serve only to prevent 
lateral play of the journals,, and are cut away to allow the 
friction rollers to come in contact with the journals. 

"In this manner the friction is really and practically 
reduced to a very considerable extent, as is proved by the 
extraordinarily low amount of power required for driving 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 



233 



Daverio's mills, viz. : one-half to one horse power per mill. 
In a mill in Manchester a ten-inch strap drives nine roller 

Fig. S, 




mills, and all the accompanying dressing machinery, leaving 
still margin for one or two more mills, although as it is, this 
ten-inch strap drives the complete plant necessary for grind- 



2^4 PRAcTicAt mMs oJr Mill BtriLDiJrGf. 

ing seven hundred sacks of wheat per week. Compared 
with millstones, such well constructed rollers are proved to 
effect both in theory and practice, a saving in this direction 
of fifty per cent., i. e. to do the same work with only half 
the power. Mr. Daverio's lever arrangement has other great 
practical advantages : the center roller is fixed by set-screws, 
S, S, in the proper position, and the necessary motion, in the 
vertical sense, of the top and bottom rollers, z. e. their press- 
ure upon the center roller is effected, regulated, and ren- 
dered elastic by means of the springs on either side at T, 
and hand-wheels at U, U. The hand lever, Y, sits upon a 
cross shaft, carrying a small excenter on either side, acting 
upon the long ends of the levers, B, B, and thus serves for 
instantaneously increasing the distance between the rollers 
by simply putting it down. In this way the difficulty in 
starting often experienced in all other roller mills, owing to 
a wedge of material having formed between the rolls, is 
perfectly and easily overcome. This lever forms a great 
advantage possessed by Mr. Daverio's mill over all others. 
By it the distance between the rolls can be altered whilst 
the mill is working, without taking the pressure of, thus the 
pressure is independent of a regular feed, and an irregular 
feed does not affect at all the position of the rolls, whereas 
in other mills if less feed goes in on one side the rolls close 
in and touch on that side, wear irregularly, and give an 
irregular product. Any sudden cessation of feed causes a 
shock to the rolls, which this contrivance entirely prevents. 

" The friction rollers are almost as important, on account 
of the services they render in lubricating the journals, as in 
reducing the friction. They oil the journals continuously 
and self-actingly, and running in closed boxes a great saving 
in oil results. Where the friction roller is above the jour- 
nal others are provided below it to do the lubrication. 
Practical men will know that this saves power i. e. money, 
besides ensuring immunity from hot bearings, and less care 
and attention necessary in working. 

"Having noAv considered the construction of the roller 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 235 

mill as such, let us proceed to examine its application in a 
complete roller mill system. The gradual development of 
this implement into a compact, ingenious, and serviceable 
shape was difficult enough; the questions to he solved, and 
the opposition and prejudice to be overcome in applying the 
same in practical milling were still more formidable, espec- 
ially in this country. The English miller uses wheat from 
all quarters of the globe, some small and hard grain, some 
large and soft, some red, some white, and beyond this, has 
generally a special quality of flour suited to the habits and 
prejudices of each separate district, to produce. On the old 
system he meets these requirements by mixing his wheat in 
varying proportions, but beyond this his mode of manufac- 
ture is extremely simple. He grinds his corn at one passage 
through the stones, passes the meal into a .scalping reel to 
take off the bran and coarse pollard, the remainder goes into 
his silk dressing machine, and is there at once divided into 
finished flour, sharps and tailings. He may have gone to 
the extent of adding a purifier for his middlings, a special 
pair of stones with which to grind the purified middlings, 
and a centrifugal dressing machine to dress the meal from 
them; but he is quite an advanced miller if he uses a pair 
of rollers instead of the last named stones, and endeavors to 
produce as many sharps or middlings as the old system will 
allow. 

"But to proceed and embrace the roller system entirely, 
and make the production of middlings the main object, 
requires a much more complicated system, as you will see 
by the following description of the general features of a 
Daverio roller mill plant, as devised and simplified to meet 
the wants of the English trade. 

" The process is divided into four main operations. 
Firstly, the cracking; secondly, the granulation of the 
wheat-berry; thirdly, the cleaning of the bran; and lastly, 
the reduction of the semolina or middlings to flour. The 
wheat first enters a set of cracking rolls, which are set some 
distance apart, and are either plain or provided with coarse 



^36 PRACriCAL HI]SfT?S ON MILL BUILDING. 

flutes, according to the kind of wheat to be treated. The 
cracking is an important operation, and has a double object. 
Primarily it is a continuation of the wheat cleaning, for the 
grains of corn in their passage to and between the rollers of 
this mill rub against each other and the rolls are also opened 
out at the crease, thus letting the dirt which lodges there 
and on their surface fall away, and what is equally import- 
ant, the slight squeeze unseats the germ and causes it to fall 
ofl:*, either at once or in the dressing cylinder which follows 
each mill. Impurities which in stone grinding are injuri- 
ously mixed with the flour, are thus removed in the crack- 
ing, the product from this operation being about one per 
cent, of the wheat, half of it germ and dirty flour, and the 
remainder inferior semolina. Besides this, the cracking 
rolls squeeze and open out the grains without flattening 
them or breaking the bran to any extent, thus preparing the 
wheat for granulation. 

" This operation is performed by four sets of rollers, 
alternately smooth and fluted, the last being the bran clean- 
ing mill. The broken wheat, after passing each mill, goes 
through one-half of a special double dressing machine, by 
which the semolina and flour produced at each passage are 
removed, and the residue passed on to the next mill. The 
work of these mills is to reduce the contents of the berry to 
semolina and middlings, whilst keeping the bran as unbro- 
ken as possible, and also making as little flour as the nature 
of the wheat will allow. You will note again that this is 
the very opposite of the stone grinding, and constitutes the 
main diflerence between the old and the new systems. This 
makes as little direct flour and as rnuch middlings as possible 
during the reduction of the wheat; that makes a,smuch direct 
flour and as little middlings as possible. The stones produce 
the best flour at the beginning of the process, the rollers keep 
it till the end when it has been removed from all contact with 
the bran. 

" The bran from the third set of rollers being to a great 
extent denuded of flour is finally passed through the fourth 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 



237 



or last set (having very fine flutes) and scraped almost clean. 
Any flour still adhering to it is recovered by passing it 
through a detacher consisting of two chilled iron disks with 
fluted surfaces, one fixed and one revolving at a high speed 
(see Fig. 4), between which the bran passes and is effectu- 

Fig. 4. 




ally cleaned, until it represents but about fifteen per cent, of 
the wheat. The remaining portion has fallen through the 
meshes of three dressing cylinders, partly as flour, but prin- 
cipally as semolina mixed with fine bran and pollard. The 
small quantity of dirty product from the first cylinder is 
sacked up for separate treatment. The flour and fine mid- 
dlings from the second and third dressing machines are con- 
veyed into another flour dressing silk, where they are dressed 
and make third quality flour. The coarser particles or mid- 
dlings which pass over the tail of this silk go to a purifier. 
The semolina and sharps from the second and third cylin- 
ders, or dressing machines, pass to a second purifier, where 
they are first divided into three sizes, then purified of the 
bulk of the bran mixed with them and conveyed in rotation 
unto one of the smooth roller middlings mills, where they 
are broken down or softened gradually into flour. As they 
fall from the rolls, partly in flakes, a detacher is used to break 
these up and facilitate the dressing of the meal in a fourth 
dressing machine, Here the flour of second quality is taken 



238 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

out and tlie residue of fine middlings passed on by a feeder 
into the first mentioned purifier, where the fine bran, fiuff, 
and dust are drawn ofif, leaving the finer middlings pure and 
ready for further grinding. This is done on another double 
roller mill provided for the purpose, the meal therefrom is 
dressed in a fifth dressing cylinder, where the flour obtained 
is naturally of the first quality, being the product of mid- 
dlings at least several times purified. If the very finest 
qualities are required, the softening down of the semolina is 
performed more gradually, it makes the round just described 
several times, so that the last flour is very fine, being made 
from the finest middlings purified from every vestige of bran 
or other impurity. The purifiers above mentioned produce 
not only pure middlings but also bran containing more or 
less of light middlings which the blast has carried with it, 
so that they really divide the material passing through them 
into two principal sorts, one being semolina, more or less 
pure, and the other fine bran with a sprinkling of semolina. 
These sorts are each crushed on separate roller mills. The 
tailings or residue from purifiers and dressing machines con- 
tinue to be repurified, reground, and redressed, so long as 
any flour can be got out of them; they remain at last as 
pollard, and the flour from these being naturally inferior is 
mixed with number three flour, or perhaps with that from 
the cracking process to form a fourth quality. 

" The plant thus described will produce, roughly speak- 
ing, from good sound wheat, twenty per cent, of number one 
flour, forty per cent, of number two, and ten to fifteen per 
cent, of numbers three and four mixed; or it can be arranged 
to run all these products together, and make one even qual- 
ity or ' straight grade ' of good seventy per cent. In either 
case fully fifty per cent, of the flour thus obtained will he much 
better in color and qucdity than that ordinarily jjroduced by stone 
grindiny from even better wheats. 

"Notwithstanding that it is much more complicated than 
the old system, the plant just described is very simple com- 
pared with the monster establishments of Hungary, where 



THE HUNGARIAN ROLLER SYSTEM. 239 

every granulation is kept separate and passes through its 
own series of purifying and repurifying, dressing and 
redressing, until some twenty different qualities are finally 
produced, of which only about the five first are sent to this 
country, A large mill is now being erected upon this sys- 
tem in Belfast, in which all the semolina will be purified 
thrice before each rolling, and all the flour dressed thrice 
before it is finished and packed. In Manchester and Lon- 
don, two large establishments, oii the plan I have described, 
have been working for a considerable time; two others are 
being erected in England; two more in Ireland; and even 
in America the change to rollers is in active progress, as 
several of the most important firms there are going over to 
the Hungarian system. 

" Thus the new method of gradual reduction instead of 
direct grinding, of the use of rollers and the production of 
middlings, has been recognized as rational, practical, and 
suited to the requirements of the age, has been adopted 
almost universally in Hungary, largely in Germany, is mak- 
ing progress amongst the enlightened millers of America 
and Ireland, has penetrated in not a few places the prejudice 
and conservatism with which the English miller is sur- 
rounded, and is beginning to shake the gates of the strong- 
hold of stone grinding in France. There can be no doubt 
that as the taste for pure white bread, with the rich flavor 
and natural strength of the grain preserved in it, spreads 
and becomes universal, so the extension of the use of roller 
mills will naturally follow, and there can be little doubt the 
use of millstones will correspondingly decrease. It seems 
very doubtful, however, whether the latter will be ever 
entirely discarded. One of the best authorities tells us that, 
'regarded from mechanical standpoint, the millstone is a 
very perfect machine, and in the struggle for existence the 
rollers will never thoroughly banish the stones,' but you 
will note that it is ' a struggle for existence,' and indeed the 
defenders of the millstone are often very apologetic, which 
is ^ bad sign. But, whatever the result, those I am now 



240 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



addressing can only profit by it. The introduction of roller 
mills will bring more work for the millwright, the foreman, 
the draughtsman, and the mechanic; it will at least stimu- 
late the improvement of the millstone and all other milling 
machinery, and as its tendency is undoubtedly to provide us 
all with whiter, purer, sweeter, and cheaper bread, I am sure 
you will agree with me in saying, 'let the best horse win.' " 





EQUILIBRIUM DRIVING PULLEY FOR MILL SPINDLES. 



Made by JOHN A. HAFNER, Pittsburgh. Pa. 

(See Appendix, page xvii.) 



ARTICLE X. 



THE ARRANGEMENT OF BELTS. 



The following very useful lesson on the arrangement of 
belts, written by Frank C. Smith, M. E,, we take by permis- 
sion from the columns of the America?! Machinist : 

"In putting up a quarter twist belt the following points 
must be looked after: The pulleys must be far enough 
apart to allow of an easy twist in the belt. The side of the 
driving pulley giving off the belt must come on a center 
line, as a, b, of the one receiving it, as shown in Fig. 1. 




The center line, C, Fig. 2, of driving pulley, B, must be on 
a line with the side of the receiving pulley; that is on that 
side of the receiving pulley from which the belt runs. In 
transmitting motion from one shaft to another running at 
right angles to it, the 'idlers' or 'corner pulleys,' C, Fig. 3, 

18 



242 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



Fig. 2. 



must have their peripheries coincide with the center lines of 
the pulleys, as A, B, in the plan view and in the elevation, 
Fis:. 4 ; the center lines of the idlers must coincide with the 
perpendicular centers of the pulleys. A, B, as shown; either 
of which may be the driver. In case of a difference in size 
between A and B, the faces of the 'idlers' must be increased 
to accommodate the angle of the belt. Wooden pulleys 
when the size of the pulley is large, are preferable to cast 
iron, especially when the want of a pattern of the required 

pulley is wanting. The rim of such 
pulleys is ' built up ' of pieces sawed 
for the purpose, glued and nailed, 
peaking joints. The arms are 'built 
in' and at the center are 'halved 
together; ' that is, the arm. A, Fig. 6, 
is received in one-third of its thick- 
ness on each side. The piece B has 
a recess two-thirds of its thickness 
deep, as has also the piece C, in the 
directions shown at A, B, C, Fig, 7. 
Two cast iron flanges previously 
bored out are bolted on as shown, 
and the face of the pulley turned off" 
after it is mounted on the shaft. A 
set of 'cones' with regular steps — 
that is with the diameters of the 
largest and smallest equal to the 
diameters of any other two pair of steps may be used if a 
crossed belt is run on them. 

"When a straight or open belt is used, the steps can be 
found by the following method: Knowing the diameters of 
the largest and smallest steps, we may draw them as shown 
in Fig. 5, as A, C, with the proper distance between centers; 
also, an elevation, as A, C, Fig. 8. The length of the belt 
is that portion of the circumference of each step. A, C, that 
the belt is in contact with, plus twice a, a. 

" The next thing is to find the diameter of the two mid' 




THE ARRANGEMENT OF BELTS. 243 

die or same sized steps, B, D. By subtracting twice the 
distance, h,h, from tlie length of the belt, we get the approx- 
imate circumference of either step, B, D, If twice the dis- 
tance, a, a, is greater than twice b, b, the difference must be 
added to the approximated circumference of B or D for the 

Fiff. 3. 

B 




exact circumference, and if two times a, a, 
is less than two times b, b, the difference 
must be taken from the approximated cir- 
cumference of B or D for the exact circum- 
ference, the diameter of which is laid down 
as D, Fig. 8. The arc of a circle cutting the 
three points, a, b, c, will give the centers of 
the other steps which may be drawn. That 
part of the circumference embraced by the 
belt may be found by the following rule : mul- 
tiply the number of degrees in the arc (part 
of circumference embraced by the belt) by 
3.1416 times the radius and divide by 180. 
The number of degrees can be found by a 
quadrant. 

"Fig. 9 shows a reliable plan for lacing a 
belt. The lace is thrust down through 1, up 
through 2, crosses the back of the belt to 3, 
down through it, and up through 4, etc. The 
belt may, when laced across, be laced back again, by going 
from 10 to 7, up through 8, and down 5, etc., making a firm 
and lasting joint, which keeps the belt ends flush with each 
other, the lacing running parallel with the belt on the pulley 
side. 



A 



244 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



"Following are some useful rules for ascertaining the 
diameter of pulleys : Suppose you wish to run a machine 

Fig. 4. 




at a given speed from a pulley on a 
line shaft. The revolutions of the 
line shaft and diameter of the pulley 
on it being known, multiply them 
together, and divide this product 
by the number of revolutions the 
machine to be driven is desired to 
make; the quotient equals the size 
of the pulley to be placed on the 
machine. If there had been a pul- 
ley on it, and you wished to ascer- 
tain the number of revolutions it 
would have made, you would have 
divided by the diameter of the pul- 
ley instead of the revolutions. For 
exact work, from five to fifteen per 
cent, more speed than is wanted 
should be calculated upon, owing to 
the slip of the belt. 

"Belts run over a leather-covered 
pulley, with the hair side next to the 
pulley will give the best results. The 
speed of a belt for exactness should 
be calculated by adding the thickness 
of the l)elt to the diameter of the pulley it runs over; this 
gives the center of this belt as the diameter of the pulley, 




THE ARRANGEMENT OP BELTS. 



245 



"Belts should have an occasional dressing of castor oil. 
The writer remembers a thirty-inch belt that was immersed 
in castor oil nearly thirty years ago, and which has never 
been off of the original pulleys but once since, and only then 
on account of the removal of the entire shop and engine to 
new quarters. Pulleys may be 'crowned' three-sixteenths 
of an inch to the foot in width. The slack side of the belt 
should be, when possible, on the top side, as it increases the 
'hug' of the belt. 

Fig. 6. 




" To ascertain the correct length of belt to be taken out 
or put in when the pulleys are changed, multiply the differ- 
ence in the diameters of the pulleys by one-half; the pro- 
duct equals the amount necessary. From sixty-five to one 
hundred pounds per inch in width is the correct amount to 
be transmitted by a belt three-sixteenths of an inch thick. 
The following rule has been used for some time by the wri- 
ter for the width of belts in inches with satisfaction : multi- 



246 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



ply the horse-power to be transmitted by 5,400, and divide 
this product by the velocity in feet per minute ; multiplied 
by diameter of smaller pulley in feet. This rule will be 
found to give a belt wide enough to do the work without 
slipping or tearing out." 

We have already devoted considerable space, in another 
part of this work to belting, but as the field is exhaustive, 
the author feels constrained to add some additional remarks 



Fig. 9. 



B 



\am 




to Mr. Smith's very instructive article. In adjusting a reel, 
or quarter-twist belt, one important principle or rule should 
-be committed to memory, by retaining which a necessity for 
examining' diagrams will not be required. It is this: the 
fold or the side of the belt leaving the face of one pulley 
must approach the center of the face of the other pulley on 
a line at right angles with the axis of the latter, or it runs 
on the pulley at right angles "udth the axis and runs off at an 
acute angle with the axis. This is true of both pulleys, dri- 
ver and driven. K this is not fully understood examine 
Figs. 1 and 2, and then read again, and keep doing so, 



THE AERANGEMENT OF BELTS. 



247 



until the principle is tliorouglilj understood. This of course 
applies only to belts untrammeled with guide pulleys or 
tighteners. By the use of these appliances directions can 
be changed. 

As has been before stated, when a reasonable size has 
been reached, nothing in theory and but little in practice is 
gained by increasing the size of the pulley, unless for the 
purpose of increasing the traveling speed of the belt; this is 

Fig. 9. 



Fiij. 8. 



c 



CI 



y \ / 1 




true so far as the co-efBcient of friction is concerned; all 
other things being exactly equal, a belt will slip just as read- 
ily on a four-foot pulley as it will on a two-foot pulley ; but 
in cases where belts run at a very high rate of speed the 
pulleys should be proportionately large to balance or coun- 
teract the effects of centrifugal force. The tendency of cen- 
trifugal force at high rates of speed is to throw the belt away 
from the pulley, and that unless guarded against is an 
important consideration. A belt traveling at the rate of five 
thousand feet per minute, and running over pulleys thirty- 
inches in diameter, would have twice the centrifugal force 
to contend with that the same speed of belt running over 
sixty-inch pulleys would have; the tendency to throw off 
would be t\^dce as great, and consequently the tendency to 



248 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDINO. 

slip, all other things being equal, would be twice as great. 
For this very important reason belts running very rapidly 
should run on correspondingly large pulleys. 

The following useful matter in relation to belts is taken 
from " Use of Belting,'' by John H. Cooper: 

Cement for Cloth or Leather — Molesioorth. — Cut small six- 
teen parts gutta-percha, four parts India-rubber, two parts 
pitch, one part shellac, and two parts linseed oil; melt 
together and mix well. 

Water-proof Cement for Cloth or Belting — Chase. — Take 
ale, one pint; best Russia isinglass, two ounces; put them 
into a common glue kettle, and boil until the isinglass is dis- 
solved; then add four ounces of the best common glue, and 
dissolve it with the other; then slowly add one-and-one-half 
ounce of boiled linseed oil, stirring all the time while adding 
and until well mixed. When cold it will resemble India- 
rubber. When you wish to use this, dissolve what you need 
in a suitable quantity of ale to have the consistence of thick 
glue. If for leather, shave off as if for sewing, apply the 
cement with a brush while hot, laying a weight on to keep 
each joint firmly for six to ten hours, or over night. 

Elastic Varnish — Smithsonian Report. — Two parts resin, 
or dammar-resin, and one part caoutchouc are fused together, 
and stirred until cold. To add to the elasticity, linseed oil 
is added. Another varnish for leather is made by putting 
pieces of caoutchouc in naptha until softened into a jelly, 
adding it to an equal weight of heated linseed oil, and stirred 
for some time together while over the fire. 

To Render Leather Water-proof — MacKenzie. — This is 
done by rubbing or brushing into the leather a mixture of 
drying oils, and any of the oxides of lead, copper or iron, 
or by substituting any of the gummy resins in the room of 
the metallic oxides. 

Water-proof Glue — MacKenzie. — Fine shreds of India- 
rubber dissolved in warm copal varnish make a water-proof 
cement for wood and leather. Another : glue, twelve ounces; 



PEACTICAL HINTS ON BELTING. 



U9 



water sufficient to dissolve it; add three ounces of resin, 
melt them together, and add four parts of turpentine or ben- 
zine. Mix in a carpenter's glue-pot to prevent burning. 

To Preserve Leather from Mould — MacKenzie. — Pyrolig- 
neous acid may be used with success in preserving leather 
from the attacks of mould, and is serviceable in recovering 
it, after it has received that species of damage, by passing it 
over the surface of the hide or skin, first taking due care to 
expunge the mouldy spots by the application of a dry cloth. 

Castor- Oil as a Dressing for Leather. MacKenzie. — Cas»- 
tor-oil, besides being an excellent dressing for leather, ren- 
ders it vermin-proof. It should be mixed, say half and half, 
with tallow or other oil. ISTeither rats, roaches, nor other 
vermin will attack leather so prepared. 

Adhesive. — A good adhesive for leather belts is printer's 
ink. I have the case of a six-inch belt running dry and 
smooth and slipping, which latter was entirely prevented for 
a year by one application of the above. 

To Fasten Leather to Metal. — A. M. Fuchs, of Bairere, 
says that in order to make leather adhere closely to metal, 
he uses the following method : the leather is steeped in an 
infusion of gall nuts; a layer of hot glue is spread upon the 
metal, and the leather forcibly applied to it on the fleshy 
side. It must be suffered to dry under the same pressure. 
By these means the adhesion of the leather will resist moist- 
ure, and m«ay be torn sooner than be separated from the 
metal. — Athenceum. 

Dressing for Leather Belts. — One part of beef kidney 
tallow and two parts of castor-oil, well mixed and applied 
warm. It will be well to moisten the belt before applying 
it. 1^0 rats or other vermin will touch a belt after one 
application of the oil. It makes the belt soft, and has suffi- 
cient gum in it to give a good adhesive surface to hold well 
without being sticky. A belt with a given tension will drive 
thirty-four per cent, more with the hair side to the pulley 
than the flesh side, — F. W. Bacon, N. Y. 



250 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

Cement — A cement for joining pieces of leather, one 
which repeated tests have shown to be very efficient, may be 
made by dissolving in a mixture of ten parts of bisulphide 
of carbon and one part of oil of turpentine, enough gutta- 
percha to thicken the composition. The leather must be 
freed from grease by placing on it a cloth, and pressing the 
latter with a hot iron. It is important that the pieces 
cemented be pressed together until the cement is dry. 

Water-proof Cement for Belting — Moore. — Dissolve gut- 
ta-percha in bisulphide of carbon to the consistence of 
molasses; warm the prepared parts and unite by pressure. 
To increase the power of rubber belting, use\ red lead, 
French yellow, and litharge, equal parts; mix with boiled 
linseed oil and japan sufficient to make it dry quick. This 
will produce a highly polished surface. 



ARTICLE XL 

MECHANICAL POWERS SOMETHIXG AEOUT THE PROPERTIES OF 

WATER AND STEAM — STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC. 

From " The 3Iech/iriic's Text Book and Engmeefs Practical 
Guide," by Thomas Kelt, we make the followiiig extracts : 

" Mechanics, regarded as a science, comprehends the sum 
of our knowledge relative to the sensible motions of bodies 
either actually existing or expressed by the opposition of 
forces tending to produce motion. The science is thus 
resolvable into a code of discovered laws, applying to the 
causes which occasion and modify the direction and the 
velocities of motion, and is therefore distinct from those 
branches of science in which, although presenting phenom- 
ena of motion in sensible portions of matter, we do not con- 
sider the circumstances and laws of these motions, but only 
the effects produced. 

"When motion itself is considered, the reasonino: beloncra 
to mechanics, and it is probable that as our knowledge of 
the laws which govern the phenomena that are evolved 
under the hand of the experimental philosopher becomes 
more extended, a wider meaning will be given to the science 
of motion. The definition which is here given of mechan- 
ics is not coeval with the name. The science, like most 
other sciences, has gradually expanded to its present extent. 
It was originally the science of machines — these being the 
first subjects of its speculation; and, as every material com- 
bination employed for producing or preventing motion may 
be regarded as a machine, and may be resolved into the 
same elementary principles as those employed in machines, 
— the mechanical powers — the name 'mechanics" became 



252 PRACTICAL Hints oN mill buildiNgI* 

to be applied to motion, the tendency to motion of any bod- 
ies whatever. Mechanics still continues to be defined by 
some the science of force, and there does not appear to 
be any valid objection to the definition. Force is the cause 
of motion, and its laws are identical with the laws of motion : 
and consequently, the science of force coincides, in all its 
parts, with the science of motion, which is mechanics." 

THE LEVEE. 

"To produce mechanical effects, it is rarely convenient to 
apply directly our available force — meaning by mechanical 
effect moving a body of a certain weight through a certain 
space — the assistance of machinery is required. In fact, 
the essential idea of machinery is, that it renders force avail- 
able for effecting certain practical ends. Machines prepare, 
as it were, the raw material of force supplied to us from 
natural sources. It is transmitted and modified by certain 
combinations of the elements of machinery, and is given off, 
at last, in a condition suitable for producing the desired 
mechanical effect. We do not create force, the end of 
machinery is just to transmit it, and diffuse or concentrate 
it in one or more points of action. The various diffused 
or concentrated forces, then, being added together, will 
just amount to the original available force. 

"All machinery, when analyzed, will be found to consist 
of a combination of six simple machines, or elements, com- 
monly called mechanical powers. This term is not correctly 
applied to these elements. They are not powers, or, in other 
words, sources of power or force, they simply transmit and 
diffuse or concentrate forces. These six elements are, the 
lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the 
wedge, and the screw. 

" To understand, therefore, the nature of any machine, 
a correct idea of these elements is requisite. 

"A lever is an inflexible rod, by the application of which 
one force may balance or overcome another. These forces 
are termed, respectively, the power and the resistance or 



MECHAXICAL POWERS. 253 

weight, not from any difference in the action of the forces, 
but with reference merely to the intention with which the 
machine is used; and indeed the same terms are used about 
all the other mechanical elements. In applying the rod to 
operate upon any resistance, it must rest upon a center 
prop, or fulcrum, somewhere along its length, upon which 
it turns in the performance of its work. Thus, there are 
three points in every lever, to be regarded in examining 
its action, namely, the two points of application of the 
power and the weight, and the point resting on the fulcrum. 
There is a certain relation to be observed between the mag- 
nitudes of the opposing force, and their distances from the 
fulcrum, namely, that, in every case, the power, multiplied 
by its distance from the fulcrum, is equal to the weight 
multiplied by its distance from the same point. From this, 
simple rules may be deduced for calculation. 

" To know the power to be applied, at a certain distance 
from the fulcrum, to overcome a resistance acting also at a 
certain distance, multiply the resistance by its distance from 
the fulcrum, which gives its moment, and divide the product 
by the distance given. Quotient will be the power, it being 
observed that the distance and the force be each expressed in 
the same unit of measure. For example, a weight, 1120 lbs., 
at 3 inches from the fulcrum, is to be balanced by a force at 
the distance of 10 feet. oSTow 10 feet are equal to 120 
inches; and the moment of 1120 Bbs. is 1120x3 = 3360. 
Divide this by 120, we have 28 lbs. for the power required. 

"Again; to know the distance at which a given force 
ought to be applied to balance a given weight at a certain 
distance, we must, in like manner, multiply the weight by 
its distance, as before, and divide by the given power. 
1120 lbs. for example, at 3 inches distance, are to be bal- 
anced by a force of 28 fibs. To find the distance of this 
weight, 1120 Bbs. multiplied by 3, give 3360, whioh, divided 
by 28, give 120 incheSj or 10 feet, " 



254 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

THE WHEEL AND AXLE, OB CBANE. 

"The mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle, or 
crane, is as the velocity of the weight to the velocity of the 
power; and being only a modification of the first kind of 
lever, it of course partakes of the same principles. 

" To determine the amount of effective power produced 
from a given power, by means of a crane with known pecu- 
liarities : 

"Rule. — Multiply together the diameter of the circle 
described by the handle and the number of revolutions of 
the pinion to one of the wheel; divide the product by the 
barrel's diameter in equal terms of dimensions; and the 
quotient is the effective power to 1 of exertive force. 

" Example. Let there be a crane, the handle of which 
describes a circle of 30 inches in diameter; the pinion makes 
8 revolutions for 1 of the wheel, and the barrel is 11 inches 
in diameter; required the effective power in principle, also 
the weight that 36 lbs. would raise, friction not taken into 
account : 

30X8 

= 21.9 to 1 of exertive force, and 21.9X36=785.5 lbs. 

11 

" Given any two parts of a crane, to find the third that 
shall produce any required proportion of mechanical effect : 

"Rule. — Multiply the two given parts together, and the 
quotient is the dimensions of the other parts in equal terms 
of unity. 

" Example. Suppose that a crane is required, the ratio of 
power to effect being as 40 to 1, and that a wheel and pinion 
11 to 1 i=5 unavoidably compelled to be employed; also the 
throw of each handle to be 16 inches; what must be the 
barrel's diameter, on which the rope or chain must coil? 

16 X 2 = 32 inches diameter described by the handle. 

32 
j^nd— X 11 = 8.8 inches, the barrel's (iian^eter," 
40 



MECHANICAL POWERS. 255 

THE PULLEY. 

" The principle of the pulley, or more practically the 
block and tackle, is the distribution of weight on various 
points of support; the mechanical advantage derived depend- 
ing entirely upon the flexibility and tension of the rope, and 
the number of pulleys or shieves in the lower or rising 
block. Hence, by blocks and tackle of the usual kind, the 
power is to the weight as the number of cords attached to 
the lower block ; whence the following rules : 

"1. Divide the weight to be raised by the number of 
cords leading to, from, or attached to the lower block; and 
the quotient is the power required to produce an equilib- 
rium, provided friction did not exist. 

" 2. Divide the weight to be raised by the power to be 
applied: the quotient is the number of shieves in, or cords 
attached to, the rising block. 

'•^Example. Required the power necessary to raise a 
weight of 3000 Sbs. by a four and five shieved block and 
tackle, the four being the movable or rising block. 

" Necessarily, there are nine cords leading to and from 
the rising block; 

3000 

Consequently, — 333 lbs., the power required. 

9 

'■'' Exainjple. I require to raise a weight 4256 Sbs., the 
amount of my power to etfect this object being 500 ibs. 
What kind of block and tackle must I, of necessity, employ ? 

4256 

= 3.51 cords — of necessity, there must be 4 shieves, 

500 or 9 cords, in the rising block. 

"As the efifective power of the crane may, by additional 
wheels and pinions, be increased to any required amount, so 
may the pulley and tackle be similarly augmented by pur- 
chase upon purchase. Two of the mois'c useful are known 
by the term runner and tackle, and the second by that of 
Spanish burton," 



256 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

THE INCLINED PLANE. 

" The inclined plane is the representative of the second 
class of mechanical elements. Its fundamental law of action 
is that of the composition and resolution of forces. The 
manner in which the advantage is immediately derived from 
it is, therefore, distinct from that of the first class; there is 
necessarily a fulcrum, a point round which all the motion 
takes place, and through which the power acts on the resist- 
ance; whereas, in this class, there is no apparent centre of 
action. The advantage gained hy the inclined plane, when 
the power acts in a parallel direction to the plane, is as the 
length to the height or angle of inclination. Hence the 
rule. Divide the weight hy the ratio of inclination, and the 
quotient will equal the power that will just support that 
weight upon the plane. Or, multiply the weight by the 
height of the plane, and divide hy the length — the quo- 
tient is the power. 

''^Example. Required the power or equivalent weight 
capable of supporting a load of 350 lbs. upon a plane of 1 
in 12, or 3 feet in height and 36 feet in length: 

350 350 X 3 

— = 29.16 K)S., or —= 29.16 fts. power, as before. 

12 36 

THE WEDGE. 

" The wedge is a double inclined plane; consequently, its 
principles are the same. Hence, when two bodies are forced 
asunder by means of the wedge, in a direction parallel to its 
head, multiply the resisting power by half the thickness of 
the head or back of the wedge, and divide the product by 
the length of one of its inclined sides; the quotient is the 
force equal to the resistance. 

" Example. The breadth of the back or head of a wedge 
being 3 inches, its inclined sides each 10 inches, required the 
power necessary to act upon the wedge so as to separate two 
substances whose resisting force is equal to 150 lbs. 



MECHANICAL POWERS. 257 

150 X 1.5 



= 22.5 lbs. 



10 



"Note. — When only one of the bodies is movable, the whole 
breadth of the wedge is taken for the multiplier." 

THE SGBEW. 

"The screw is another modification of the incHned plane, 
and it may be said to remove the same kind of practical 
inconveniences incidental to the use of the latter, that the 
pulley does in reference to the simple lever. The lever is 
very limited in the extent of its action ; so is the inclined 
plane. But the pulley multiplies the extent of the action of 
the lever, by presenting, in effect, a series of levers acting in 
regular succession; and just such a purpose is effected by 
the screw. It multiplies the extent of the action of the 
inclined plane, by presenting, in effect, a continued series of 
planes. 

" The screw, in principle, is that of an inclined plane 
wound round a cylinder, which generates a spiral of uniform 
inclination, each revolution producing a rise or traverse 
motion equal to the pitch of the screw, or distance between 
the two consecutive threads — the pitch being the height or 
angle of inclination and the circumference the length of the 
plane. Hence, the mechanical advantage is, as the circum- 
ference of the circle described by the lever where the power 
acts is to the pitch of the screw, so is the force to the resist- 
ance in principle. 

'■'■ Exawi'ple. — Required the effective power obtained by a 
screw of | inch pitch, and moved by a force equal to 50 ibs. 
at the extremity of a lever 30 inches in length : 

X 2 X 3.1416 X 50 

^ = 10760 R)S. 



875 



" Example. Required the power necessary to overcome 
a resistance equal to 7000 ft)S. by a screw of 1\ inch pitch 
^,nd moved by a lever 25 inches in length : 

19 



258 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

7000X1.25 

= 55.73 tbs. power. 



25 X 2 X 3.1416 

"In the case of a screw acting on the periphery of a 
toothed wheel, the power is to the resistance as the product 
of the circle's circumference described by the winch or lever, 
and radius of the wheel, to the product of the screw's pitch 
and radius of the axle or point whence the power is trans- 
mitted; but observe that, if the screw consist of more than 
one thread, the apparent pitch must be increased so many 
times as there are threads in the screw. Hence, to find what 
weight a given power will equipoise. 

"Rule. — Multiply together the radius of the wheel, the 
length of the lever at which the power acts, the magnitude 
of the power, and the constant number 6.2832; divide the 
product by the radius of the axle into the pitch of the screw, 
and the quotient is the weight that the power is equal to. 

" Example. What weight will be sustained in equilibrio 
by a power of 100 lbs. acting at the end of a lever 24 inches 
in length, the radius of the axle, or point whence the power 
is transmitted being 8 inches, the radius of the wheel 14 
inches, the screw consisting of a double thread, and the 
apparent pitch equal f of an inch ? 

14 X 24 X 100 X 6.2832 

■ = 21111.55 fts. the power sustained. 

.625 X 2 X 8 
"Note.— It is estimated that about one-third more power must 
be added to overcome the friction of the screw when loaded, than 
is necessary to constitute a balance between power and weight." 

EFFECTS PRO DUG ED BY WATEB IN ITS 
NATURAL STATE. 

" By analysis it is ascertained, that water is composed of 
the gases oxygen and hydrogen in a state of chemical union; 
its distinguishing properties, like that of other liquids, being 
nearly incompressible gravity, capability of flowing, and 
constant tendency to press outwards in every direction ; also 
that of being easily changed by the absorption of caloric to 
an aeriform state of any recjuired density of degree or elastic 



MECHANICAL POWERS. . 259 

force: hence the principle of the hydrauhc press, the water- 
wheel, the steam engine, etc. 

"Because of liquids possessing the properties of gravity 
and capahility of flowing freely in every direction, sides of 
vessels, flood-gates, sluices, etc., sustain a pressure equal to 
the product of the area multiplied by half the depth of the 
fluid, and by its gravity in equal terms of unity. 

"But when a sluice or opening through which a liquid 
may issue is under any given continued head, the pressure 
is equal the product of the area multiplied into the height 
from the centre of the opening to the surface of the fluid. 

" Example. Required the pressure of water on the sides 
of a cistern 18 feet in length, 13 in width and 9 in depth: 

"The terms of measurement or unity are in feet, 1 cubic foot 
of water = 62.5 lbs. ; hence 18 x 9 X 2 + 13 x 9 x 2— 558 x 4.5 x 62.5 = 
156937.5 lbs. weight of water on bottom = 18 X 13 X 9 x 62.5 - 131625 lbs. 

^'■Example. Required the pressure on a sluice 3 feet 
square, and its centre 30 feet from the surface of the water : 

" 3 X 3 X 30 X 62.5 = 16875 lbs. 

"The weight of water or other fluid is as the quantity, 
but the pressure exerted is as the vertical height. Hence, as 
fluids press equally in every direction, any vessel containing 
a fluid sustains a pressure equal to as many times the weight 
of the column of greatest height of that fluid, as the area of 
the vessel is to. the sectional area of the column. 

" Example. Let a cubical vessel, whose sides are each 4 
square feet, have a tube inserted 1 inch in diameter, and 6 
feet in height, and let both vessel and tube be fllled with 
water; required the whole weight of the water therein con- 
tained, and also the whole pressure exerted intending to 
burst the vessel; 

"Cubic contents of the vessel = 8 feet, and each foot = 62.5 lbs. ; 
then 62.5 X 8 = 500 area of pipe's section = .7854 inches, and height 
72 inches, also a cubic inch of water = .03617 lbs. ; hence .7854X72 
X .03617 = 2 lbs. + 500 = 502 fts., total weight of water. 

"Again; the whole height of the column = 96 inches ; then .7854 
X 96 X ,03617 = 2.33 Ibg.^ pressure of column on an equal area, 144 



2G<> I'JIACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

144X4X6sides 

sciuare inches = 1 sciuare foot, and = 4400.4 times the 

.7854 
urea of thel)ii)e's iliametcr in tlie whole surface; therefore, 4400.4 
X 2.33 = 10253 1l>s., or total amount of pressure exerted. 

"To find the velocity of water issuing a circular orifice 
at any given depth from the surface. 

"lIuLE. — Multiply the square root of the height or depth 
to the centre of the orifice hy 8.1; and the product is the 
velocity of the issuing fluid in feet per second. 

'-^Example. Required the velocity of water issuing 
through an orifice under a head of 11 feet from the surface: 

" Square root of 11 = 3.3166 x 8.1 = 26.864 feet, velocity per second. 

"In the discharge of water hy a rectangular aperture in 
the side of a reservoir, and extending to the surface, the 
velocity varies nearly as the square root of the height, and 
the quantity discharged per second equal two-thirds of the 
velocity due to the mean height, allowing for the contraction 
of the fluid according to the form of the opening, which 
renders the coeflicient in this case equal to 5.1; whence the 
following general rules: 

" 1. When the aperture extends to the surface of the 
fluid: Multiply the area of the opening in feet by the square 
rout of its depth also in feet, and that product by 5.1; then 
will two-thirds of the hist product equal the quantity dis- 
charged, in cubic feet, per second. 

" 2. When the aperture is under a given head : Multi- 
ply the area of the aperture, in feet, by the square root of 
the depth, also in feet, and by 5.1; the product is the quan- 
tity discharged, in cubic feet, per second. 

" Example. Required the {quantity of water in cubic feet 
per second, discharged through an opening in the side of a 
dam or weir, the width or length of the opening being 6| 
feet, and depth 9 inches, or .75 of a foot: 

" Square root of .75= .866. 
6.5 X .V5 X .866 X 5.1 X 2 
Then = 14.3839 cubic feet. 



EFFECTS OP WATER. 261 

'■'■ Bxamjile. "What would be the quantity discharged 
through the above opening, if under a head of water 4 feet 
in height? 

"Square root of 4 = 2, and 2X5.1 = 10.2 feet, velocity of the 
water per second. And 6.5X75X2X5.1 = 49.725 cubic feet dis- 
charged in the same time. 

" The combined properties of gravity and fluidity which 
water possesses, render it so available as a source of motive 
power; gravity being the property by which the power is 
produced, and fluidity that by which it is so commodiously 
qualified to the various modifications in which it is employed. 

"Water, it is ascertained, is subject to the same laws of 
gravity as those of solid bodies, and thereby accumulates 
velocity or effect in an equal ratio when falling through an 
equal space, or descending from an equal height. Hence, 
the velocity attained is as the square root of the height of 
its fall; and it is now quite ' satisfactorily decided, that, 
because of the non-elastic property of water, its greatest is 
obtained when acting by gravity throughout its whole height, 
whether it be applied on a water wheel, turbine, or other 
machine through which circular motion is to be the imme- 
diate result. 

"In regard to water-wheels, and other machines through 
which motion is produced by the effort of water, much 
discrepancy of opinion has, until lately, existed, both as to 
form and velocity, besides other essential points requisite in 
gaining a maximum of effect with the least possible strain ; 
but these doubts are now in a great measure removed 
through experiments by the Franklin Institute in this coun- 
try, added to those in France by Morin, and the results of a 
patented machine by Whitelaw and Stirrat, Scotland, com- 
bined with pertinent observations and remarks by interested 
parties in this as well as other countries. Hence have been 
deduced the following demonstrative conclusions : 

" 1. That to gain a maximum of effect by a horizontal 
water-wheel, the water must be laid upon the wheel on the 
stream side, and the diameter of the wheel so proportioned 



202 PHACTICAL illNTS ON MILL BUiLDING. 

to tlio lieiglit of the full, that the water may he laid on ahout 
52^ degrees distant from tlie summit of the wheel, or the 
height of the fall, heing 1 the height or diameter of the 
wheel e([ual 1,108. 

"That the periphery of a water-wheel ought to move at 
a velocitj' equal to ahout twice the square root of the fall of 
the water in feet per second, and the number of buckets 
equal 2.1 times the wheel's diameter in feet; also, that pre- 
cautionary means be adopted foi- the escape of the air out of 
the buckets, either by making the stream of water a few 
inches narrower than the wheel, or otherwise. 

" 3. That, because of water producing a less efficient 
power by impulse than gravity, turbines, or machines 
through which the motion is obtained by reaction, are 
greatly preferable to undershot, or low-breast wheels. 

" That a head of water is required sufficient to cause the 
velocity of its flowing to be as 3 to 2 of the wheel; one- 
ninth of the wheel's diameter being an approximate height, 
near enough for practical purposes. 

"5. That the effective power of a wheel constructed 
according to these restrictions, is ecjual to the product of the 
number of cubic feet and velocity in feet per minute, multi- 
plied into .001325. 

'■'■ Exam2)le for general illustration. Suppose a fall of water 
25 feet in height, over which is delivered 112 cubic feet per 
minute; required the various peculiar requisites for a wheel 
to be in accordance with the j)receding rules : 

"1st. 25 X 1,08 = 27 feet, the wheel's diameter. 

2 d . Square root of 25 x 2 = 10 feet velocity of the wheel 
in feet per second. 
Also : 27 X 2.1 = 56.7, say 57 buckets. 

3d. 27^ 9 = 3 feet, head of water required. 

4th. 112 X 10 X 60 X ,001325 = 89 horses' power. 

"The turbine of Fourneyron, in France, and the pat- 
ented water-mill of Whitelaw and Stirrat, (Scotland, have, of 
late years, attracted a considerable share of public attention; 
their simplicity of construction and asserted effects in like 



Steam power. 263 

situations, being equal to those of the best applied water- 
wheels. In their manner of construction they differ, but in 
principle they are the same; the action of each being crea- 
ted by a centrifugal and tangential force, caused by the weight 
or impulsion of a column of water whose height or altitude 
is equal to twice the height of the fall due to the water's 
velocity; and in order to produce a maximum of effect in 
either the one or the other by the pressure and centrifugal 
force of the effluent water, it is necessary that the emitting 
tubes or helical channels of the machine be so curved that 
the apertures shall be in a right line with the radius of the 
wheel. 

"1. That turbines are equally adapted to great as to 
small waterfalls. 

" 2. That they are capable of transmitting a useful effect 
to from 70 to 78 per cent, of the absolute power. 

"3. That their velocities may vary considerably from 
the maximum effect, without differing sensibly from it. 

"4. That they will work nearly as effectually when 
drowned to the depth of 6 feet as when free, and, conse- 
quently, they will make use of the whole of the fall when 
placed below the level of extreme low water. 

" 5. That they receive variable quantities of water, with- 
out altering the ratio of the power to the effect." 

STEAM POWEE: 

" There is no application of science to the arts of more 
importance, and more extensive in its effects, than that of 
the employment of steam for driving all kinds of machinery. 
It is not my intention to enter into the details of the power 
of steam or the steam-engine, but to give some practical 
rules, the utility of which has been tested. 

" Steam is of great utility as a productive source of 
motive power; in this respect, its properties are, elastic 
force, expansive force, and reduction by condensation. 
Elastic signifies the whole urgency or power the steam is 
capable of exerting with undiminished effect. By expansive 



264 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL iJUlLblNd. 

force is generally understood the amount of diminishing 
effect of the steam on the piston of a steam-engine, reckon- 
ing from that point of the stroke where the steam of uni- 
form elastic force is cut off; but it is more properly the force 
which steam is capable of exerting, when expanded to a 
known number of times its original bulk. And condensa- 
tion, here understood, is the abstraction or reduction of heat 
by another body, and consequently not properly a contained 
property of the steam, but an effect produced by combined 
agency in which steam is the principal; because any colder 
body will extract the heat and produce condensation, bnt 
steam cannot be so beneficially replaced by any other fluid 
capable of maintaining equal results. 

"The rules formed by experimenters, as corresponding 
with the results of their experiments on the elastic force of 
steam at given temperatures, vary, but approximate so 
closely, that the following rule, because of being simple, 
may, in practice, be taken in preference to any other : 

"Rule. — To the temperature of the steam, in degrees of 
Fahrenheit, add 100; divide the sum by 177; and the 6th 
power of the quotient equal the force in inches of mercury. 

" Example. Required the force of steam correspoding to 
a temperature of 312 degrees: 

312 + 100 

= 2.3277^ = 159 inches of mercury. 

177 

" To estimate the amount ot advantage gained by using 
steam expansively in a steam-engine : 

"When steam of a uniform elastic force is employed 
throughout the whole ascent or descent of the piston, the 
amount of effect produced is as the quantity of steam 
expended. But let the steam be shut off at any portion of 
the stroke — say, for instance, at one-half — it expands by 
degrees until the termination of the stroke, and then exerts 
half its original force; hence an accumulation of effect in 
proportion to the quantity of steam. 

"Rule. — Divide the length of the stroke by the distance, 



Steam power. 265 

or space into whicli the dense steam is admitted, and find 
the hyperbolic logarithm of the quotient, to which add 1 ; 
and the sum is the ratio of the gain. 

" Example. Suppose an engine with a stroke of 6 feet, 
and the steam cut off when the piston has moved through 
it; required the ratio of gain by uniform and expansive 
force : 

"6^2 = 3; hyperbolic logarithm of 3 = 1.0986 + 1 = 2.0980, ratio 
of effect; that is, supposing the whole effect of the steam to be 3, 
the effect by the steam being cut off at ^ = 2.0986. , 

"Again; let the greatest elastic force of steam in the 
cylinder of an engine equal 48 lbs. per square inch, and let 
it be cut off from entering the cylinder when the piston has 
moved 4J inches, the whole stroke being 10; required an 
equivalent force of the steam throughout the whole stroke : 

18^4.5 = 4, and 48-f-4=12. 
Logarithm of 4 + 1 =|2.38629. 
Then 2.38629 X 12= 28635 fts. per square inch. 

"In regard to the other case of expansion, when the tem- 
perature is constant, the bulk is inversely as the pressure; 
thus, suppose steam at 30 ibs. per square inch ; required its 
bulk to that of original bulk, when expanded so as to retain 
a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere, or 15 Sbs : 

15 + 30 

= 3 times its original bulk. 

15 

"It is because of the latent heat in steam, or water in an 
aeriform state, that it becomes of such essential service in 
heating, boiling, drying, etc. In the heating of buildings, 
its economy, etficiency, and simplicity of application, are 
alike acknowledged; the steam, being simply conducted 
through all the departments by pipes, by extent of circula- 
tion condenses — the latent heat beins" thus ffiven to the 
pipes, and diffused by radiation. In boiling, its etficiency is 
considerably increased, if advantage be taken of sufficiently 
enclosing the fluid, and reducing the pressure on its surface, 
by means of 'an air-pump. Thus water in a vacuum boils at 



266 PRACTICAL Hli^TS ON MILL BUILDIffOf. 

about a temperature of 98 degrees; and in sugar-refining, 
wliere such means are employed, the syrup is boiled at 150 
degrees." 

EFFECTS PBODUCED BY WATEB IN AN 
AEBIFOBM STATE. 

"When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire, 
it readily imbibes the heat, or fluid principle of which the 
firo is the immediate cause, and sooner or later, according to 
the intensity of the heat, attains a temperature of 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit. If, at this point of temperature the water be 
not enclosed, but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition 
will take place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the 
water, carrying with it the superabundant heat, or that 
which the water cannot, under such circumstances of press- 
ure, absorb, to be retained, and to indicate a higher tem- 
perature. 

"Water, in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly 
confined to the same laws, under every degree of pressure; 
but, as the pressure is augmented, so is the indicated tem- 
perature proportionately elevated. Hence the various densi- 
ties of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force." 

STBENGTH OF MATEBIALS. 

Chas. H. HaswelFs Engineers'" and Mechanics' Pocket-Book. 

" The component parts of a rigid body adhere to each 
other with a force which is termed cohesion. 

" Elasticity is the resistance which a body opposes to a 
change of form. 

" Strength is the resistance which a body opposes to a 
permanent separation of its parts. 

"Elasticity and strength, according to the manner in 
which a force is exerted upon a body, are distinguished as 
tensile strength, or absolute resistance; transverse strength, 
or resistance to flexure; crushing strength, or resistance to 
compression; torsional strength, or resistance to torsion; 
and detrusiye strength, or resistance to shearing. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 267 

" The limit of stiffiiess is flexure, and the limit of strength 
or resistance is fracture. 

"Resilience, or toughness of bodies, is strength and flex- 
ibility combined; hence any material or body which bears 
the greatest load, and bends the most at the time of fracture, 
is the toughest. 

" The specific gravity of iron is ascertained to indicate 
very correctly the relative degree of strength. 

"The neutral axis, or line of equilibrium, is the line at 
which extension terminates and compression begins. 

"The resistance of cast iron to crushing and tensile 
strains is, as a mean, as 4.3 to 1.* 

"The mean tensile strength of American cast iron, as 
determined by Major Wade, for the United States ordnance 
corps, is 31829 Sbs. per square inch of section; the mean of 
English, as determined by Mr. E. Hodgkinson, for the rail- 
way commission, etc., in 1849, is 19484 lbs.; and by Colonel 
Wilmot, at Woolwich, in 1858, for gun-metal, is 23257 lbs. 

" The ultimate extension of cast iron is the 500th part of 
its length. 

"The mean transverse strength of American cast iron, 
also determined by Major Wade, is 681 Sbs. per square inch, 
suspended from a bar fixed at one end and loaded at the 
other; and the mean of English, as determined by Fairbairn, 
Barlow, and others, is 500 ifes. 

" The resistance of wrought iron to crushing and tensile 
strains is, as a mean, as 1.5 to 1 for American; and for 
English 1.2 to 1. 

" The mean tensile strength of American wrought iron, 
as determined by Professor Johnson, is 55900 flbs. ; and the 
mean of English, as determined by Captain Brown, Barlow, 
Brunei, and Fairbairn, is 53900 Bbs.f 



* The experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson on ir©n of low tensile 
strength gives a mean of 6.595 to 1. 

fThe results, as given by Mr. Telford, included experiments 
upon Swedish iron ; hence they are omitted in this summary. 



268 PKAC4'rCAL HINTS UN MILL BUILDING, 

"Tlie ultimate extension of wrought iron is the 600th 
part of its length. 

" The resistance to flexure, acting evenly over the sur- 
face, is nearly one-half the tensile resistance." 

TBUSSED BEAMS OB GIRDERS. 

"Wrought and cast iron possess different powers of 
resistance to tension and compression; and when a beam is 
so constructed that these two materials act in unison with 
each other at the stress due to the load required to be borne, 
their combination will effect an essential saving of material. 
In consequence of the difliculty of adjusting a tension-rod 
to the strain required to be resisted, it is held to be imprac- 
ticable to construct a perfect truss beam. 

".Fairbairn declares that it is better for the tension of the 
truss rod to be low than high, which position is fully sup- 
ported by the following elements of the two metals : 

"Wrought iron has great tensile strength, and having 
great ductility, it undergoes much elongation when acted 
upon by a tensile force. On the contrary, cast iron has 
great crushing strength, and, having but little ductility, it 
undergoes but little elongation when acted upon by a tensile 
force ; and, when these metals are released from the action 
of a high tensile force, the set of the one differs widely from 
that of the other, that of wrought iron being the greatest. 
Under the same increase of temperature, the expansion of 
wrought is considerably greater than that of cast iron ; 1.81* 
tons per square inch is required to produce in wrought iron 
the same extension as in cast iron by 1 ton. 

"Fairbairn, in his experiments upon English metals, 
deduced that within the limits of strain of 13440 ft)s. per 
square inch for cast iron, and 30240 ft)S. per square inch for 
wrought iron, the tensile force applied to wrought iron must 
be 2.25 times tlie tensile force applied to cast iron, to pro- 
duce equal elongations. 



*The elongation of cast and wrought iron being 5500 and 
10000, hence 10000-^5500= 1.81. 



TRUSSED BEAMS OR GIRDERS. 269 

" The relative tensile strengths of cast and wrought iron 
being as 1 to 1.35, and their resistance to extension as 1 to 
2.25, therefore, where no initial tension is applied to a truss 
rod, the cast iron must be ruptured before the wrought iron 
is sensibly extended. 

" The resistance of cast iron in a trussed beam is not 
wholly that of tensile strength, but it is a combination of 
both tensile and crushing strengths, or a transverse strength ; 
hence, in estimating the resistance of a girder, the transverse 
strength of it is to be used in connection with the tensile 
strength of the truss, 

"The mean transverse strength of a cast iron bar, one 
inch square and one foot in length, supported at both ends, 
the stress applied in the middle, is about 900 fibs.; and as 
the mean tensile strength of wrought iron is about 20000 fibs, 
per square inch, the ratio between the sections of the beams 
and of the truss should be in the ratio of the transverse 
strength per square inch of tJie beam and of the tensile 
strength of the truss. 

" The girders under consideration are those alone in 
which the truss is attached to the beam at its lower flange, 
in which case it presents the following conditions: 

"1. When the truss runs parallel to the lower flange. 
2. When the truss runs at an inclination to the lower flang-e, 
being depressed below its centre. 3. When the beam is 
arched upward, and the truss runs as a chord to the curve. 

" Consequently, in all these cases the section of the beam 
is that of an open one with a cast iron upper flange and 
web, and a wrought iron lower flange, increased in its resist- 
ance over a wholly cast iron beam in proportion to the in- 
creased tensile strength of wrought iron over cast iron for 
equal sections of metals. 

" As the deductions of Fairbairn as to the initial strain 
proper to be given to the truss are based upon a cast iron 
beam with the truss inserted into the upper flange of the 
beam, whereby it was submitted almost wholly to a tensile 



270 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

strain, they will not apply to the two constructions of trussed 
beams under consideration. 

" As each construction of trussed beam will produce a 
strain upon the truss in accordance with the position of the 
neutral axis of the section of the whole beam, and as the 
extension of the truss will vary according as it is more or 
less ductile, it is impracticable, in the absence of the neces- 
sary elements, to give an amount of initial strain that would 
be applicable as a rule. 

"From the various experiments made upon trussed beams, 
it is shown : 

"1. That their rigidity far exceeds that of simple beams; 
in some cases it was from 7 to 8 times greater. 2. That 
when the truss resists rupture, the upper flange of the beam 
being broken by compression, there is a great gain in 
strength. 3. That their strength is greatly increased by the 
upper flange being made larger than the lower one. 4. That 
their strength is greater than that of a wrought iron tubular 
beam containing the same area of metal." 

DEFLECTION OF BABS, BEAMS, GIBBERS, ETC. 

"The experiments of Barlow upon the deflection o± 
wood battens determined that the deflection of a beam from 
a transverse strain varied as the breadth directly, and as the 
cubes of both the depth and length, and that with like 
beams and within the limits of elasticity it was directly as 
the weight, 

"In bars, beams, etc., of an elastic material, and having 
great length, compared to their depth, the deductions of 
Barlow will apply with suflicient accuracy for all practical 
purposes; but in consequence of the varied proportions of 
depth to length of the varied character of materials, of the 
irregular resistance of beams constructed with scarfs, trusses, 
or riveted plates, and of the unequal deflection at initial and 
ultimate strains, it is impracticable to give any positive laws 
regarding the degrees of deflection of different and digsimi-' 
lar bars, beams, etc, 



DEFLECTION OF BARS, BEAMS, ETC. 271 

"In the experiments of Hodgkinson, it was farther 
shown that the sets from deflections were very nearly as the 
squares of the deflections. 

"In a rectangular bar, beam, etc., the position of the 
neutral axis is in its centre, and it is not sensibly altered by 
variations in the amount of strain applied. In bars, beams, 
etc., of cast and wrought iron, the position of the neutral 
axis varies in the same beam, and is only fixed while the 
elasticity of the beam is perfect. When a bar, beam, etc., 
is bent so as to injure its elasticity, the neutral line changes, 
and continues to change during the loading of the beam, 
until it breaks. 

"When bars, beams, etc., are of the same length, the 
deflection of one, the weight being suspended from one end, 
compared with that of a beam uniformly loaded, is as 8 to 3 ; 
and when a beam is supported at both ends, the deflection 
in like cases is as 5 to 8. Whence, if a bar, etc., is in the 
first case supported in the middle, and the ends permitted to 
deflect; and in the second, the ends supported, and the mid- 
dle permitted to descend, the deflection in the two cases is 
as 3 to 5. 

" Of three equal and similar bars or beams, one inclined 
upward, one downward at the same angle, and the other 
horizontal, that which has its angle upward is the Aveakest, 
the one which declines is the strongest, and the one hori- 
zontal is a mean between the two. 

"When a bar, beam, etc., is uniformly loaded, the deflec- 
tion is as the weight, and approximately as the cube of the 
length or as the square of the length; and the element of 
deflection and the strain upon the beam, the weight being 
the same, will be but half of that when the weight is 
suspended from one end. 

"The deflection of a bar, beam, etc., fixed at one end, 
and loaded at the other, compared to tha^ of a beam o^ twice 
the length, supported at both ends, and loaded in the mid- 
dle, the strain being the same, is as 2 to 1; and when the 
length and the loads ax'e the sanie, the d. flection will be as 



272 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

16 to 1, for the strain will be four times greater on the beam 
fixed at one end than on the one supported at both ends: 
therefore, all other things being the same, the element of 
deflection will be four times greater; also, as the deflec- 
tion is as the element of deflection into the square of the 
length, then as the lengths at which the weights are borne 
in their cases are as 1 to 2, the deflection is as 



1:2'^ X 4=1 to 16. 

"The deflection of a bar, beam, etc., having the section 
of a triangle, and supported at its ends, is one-third greater 
when the edge of the angle is up, than when it is down." 

(The following remarks and rules in reference to the 
strength of materials are taken from a work venerable with 
age, but none the less valuable. The rules are simple, and 
easily understood : ) 

"The strength of materials is a subject of great import- 
ance in mechanics, and one which, of all the branches of 
this useful science, is the least understood. Several very 
eminent mathemeticians have exercised their talents and 
ingenuity in forming theories for estimating the strength of 
beams according to the various positions in which they are, 
but unfortunately, they made no experiments; therefore, 
they had no better foundation than mere hypothesis ; conse- 
quently are totally at variance with practice. 

" It is not intended, however, in this short abstract, to 
perplex the reader with theory, but to furnish the artizan 
with a few properties, which to him will be more useful than 
many discordant suppositions. 

"A body may be exposed to four diflferent kinds of 
strains. 1. It may be torn asunder by some force applied in 
the direction of its length, as in the case of ropes, etc. 2. 
It may also be crushed by a force applied in the direction of 
its length, as in the case of pillars, posts, etc. 3. It may be 
broken across by a force acting perpendicularly to its length, 
as in joints, levers, etc. 4. It may be wrenched or twisted 



DIRECT COHESION OF DIFFERENT BODIES. 273 

by a force acting in a kind of circular direction at the 
extremity of a lever, as in the case of wheel-axles, etc. 

"The first of these, viz., the direct cohesion of bodies, is 
one which seldom comes under the consideration of the 
mechanic or engineer; and if any former experiments can 
be obtained, they are generally sufiicient for his purpose; or 
no reason can be assigned why the strength should not vary 
directly as the section of fracture, and is totally independent 
of the length in position, except so far as the weight of the 
body may increase the force applied. ISTeglecting this, and 
supposing the body uniform in all its parts, the strength of 
bodies exposed to strains in the direction of their length, is 
directly proportionate to their transverse area, whatever may 
be their figure, length or position. 

" Experiments on the direct cohesion of all bodies are 
attended with great difliculty, in consequence of the enor- 
mous force required to produce a separation of the parts, in 
bars of any considerable dimensions. 

"Some experiments of this kind, however, have been 
made, the results of which are as follows, all reduced to the 
section of a square inch: 

Pounds. 

Gold Oast |20,000 

Silver Oast jg.»»» 



[i 



r Japan 19,500 

Barbary 22,000 

Copper Cast ^Hungary 31,000 

■ Anglesea 34,000 

.Sweden 37,000 

Iron Cast Ig'OJO 

rOrdinary 65,000 

TroTi -Rar < Stirian 78,000 

xron isar <, Best Swedish and Eussian 84,000 

[Horse Nails 71,000 

Steel Bar i Soft 120,000 

] Eazor tempered 150,000 

f Malacca 3,100 

I Banca 3,600 

Tin Cast \ Block 3,800 

I English Block 5,200 

[.English Grain 6,500 

20 



274 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BFILPIXO. 

Lead Ciist 860 

Eeirulus of Antimonv 1,000 

Ziiie 2.600 

Bismuth -2,900 

'* It is very remarkable that almost all mixtures of metals 
are stronger or more tenacious than the metals themselves. 
much depending upon the proportion of the ingredients; 
and these proportions are diiierent in metals. 

Oak 9.000 

Ash 17.000 

Pine from 10.000 to 13,000 



OX THE BESISTAXCE OF BODIES WHEX PBESSED 
LOXGITTBIXALL Y. 

"It is obvious that a bodv when pressed endwise, by a 
sufficient force, may be crushed and destroyed, either by a 
total separation of the matter by which it is composed, or by 
bending it. whereby it is broken across : if the length of the 
body be very inconsiderable the former is the almost certain 
result : but if its; length be much more than its breadth and 
thickness, it generally bends before breaking. 

"Although many experiments, and some very intricate 
analytical investigations have been made upon this subject, 
yet little can be advanced that will be of use to the practical 
engineer. It may be observed, that a pillar of hard stone of 
Giory. whose section is a square foot, will bear with perfect 
safety 664,000 ft»s. : and its extreme strength is 871.000 ft»s. 

"Gx»od brick will carry with safety 320,000 ft^s. on an 
square foot; and chalk, 9,000 lbs. 

" It requires a power of 400.000 ft>s, to crush a cube of 
one-quarter of an inch of east iron, 

"The most usual strain, and therefore the one with 
which it is most important for us to be well informed is, that 
by which a body is broken across, from the force of weight 
actiuir perpendicularly or obliquely to its length, while the 
beam itself is supported by its two extremities, or by one 
end fixed into a wall, or otherwise. 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS, ETC. 275 

"From various experiments which have been made, the 
following results have been deduced : 

" 1. The lateral strength of beams is inversely as their 
lengths. 

" 2. The lateral strengths of the beams are directly as 
their breadth. 

" 3. The lateral strength of beams is as the square of 
their depth. 

"4. In square beams the lateral strengths are as the 
cube of one side. 

" .5. In round beams as the cube of the diameter. 

" 6. The lateral strength of a beam with its narrow face 
upwards, is to its strength with the broad fece upwards as 
the breadth of the broader face to the breadth of the nar- 
rower. 

" 7. The strength of beam supported only at its extremes, 
is to the strength of the same when fixed at both ends, as 1 
to 2. 

" 8. The strength of a beam with the weight or load 
suspended from the centre is to the strength when the load 
is equally divided in the length of the beam, as 1 to 2. 

"According to the experiments made by Mr, Banks, the 
worst or weakest piece of oak he tried bore 600 pounds, 
though much bended, and 2 pounds more broke it. The 
strongest piece broke with 974 pounds. 

"The worst piece of deal bore 460 pounds, but broke 
with 4 more. The best piece bore 690 pounds, but broke 
with a little more. 

" The weakest cast iron bar bore 2190 pounds, and 
strongest 2980 pounds. 

" Also, these experiments were made upon pieces 1 inch 
square, the props exactly 1 foot asunder, and the weight 
suspended from the centre, the ends lying loose. 

" By way of illustration we will add a few examples for 
the exercise of the reader: 

"What weight suspended from the middle of an oak 
beam, whose length is 10 feet, and each side of its square 



276 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

end 4 inches, will break it when supported at each end? 

"By article 1st, the lateral strengths of beams are 
inversely as the lengths, and (article 4) as the cube of one 
side. 

" Then, as a piece 1 foot long and 1 inch square bore 660 
pounds, one 10 feet long would bear 66 pounds, and 66 mul- 
tiplied by 64, the cube of 4 = 4224 pounds the weight, the 
above beam would support. If the ends of the beam were 
prevented from rising it would bear 8448 pounds; and if the 
weight was equally diffused in its length, it would support 
16896 pounds. 

"Required the strength of a hollow shaft of cast iron 
supported at its two extremes, 5 inches in diameter, the 
diameter of the hollow being 4 inches, and the .length of the 
shaft 10 feet? 

"First find the strength of a solid shaft 5 inches diame- 
ter, and then that of one 4 inches, which deduced from the 
former, gives its strength. 

"The strength of round beams are as the cubes of their 
diameter, and the cube of 5 is 125; this multiplied by 170; 
the strength of a round bar 1 inch in diameter and 10 feet 
long, gives 21,375 pounds for the strength of a solid shaft 
5 inches diameter and 10 feet long. 

"The cube of 4 is 64 multiplied by 171 = 10,944 pounds, 
the strength of a solid shaft 3 inches diameter and 10 feet 
long. Now 21,375 — 10,944 = 10,431 pounds, the strength 
of the hollow shaft required. 

"N. B. The diameter of a solid having the same quan- 
tity of matter with the tube is 3, but the strength of it would 
not be half that of the ring. Engineers have of late intro- 
duced this improvement into their machines, the axles of 
cast iron being made hollow, when the size and other cir- 
cumstances will admit of it. 

"Required the strength of a piece of deal 6 inches broad, 
2 inches deep, and 5 feet long, placed edgeways, and the 
weight suspended from the centre? Answer, 6624 pounds. 

"What weight will a cast iron beam bear supported in 



SIHENGTH OF BEAMS, ETC. 277 

tlie centre, the length of the beam being 6 feet 8 inches deep, 
and. 1 inch thick? Answer, 10 tons, 8 cwt., 2 quarters, and 
8 ft)s. 

"If a plank be three inches thick, and 12 inches broad, 
how much more will it bear with its edge than with its flat 
side uppermost? Answer, 4 times more with its edge 
uppermost. 

" With respect to the fourth strain, viz. : the twist to 
which bars or shafts in an upright position are liable by the 
wheel which drives them, and the resistances they have to 
overcome, little that will be satisfactory can be advanced. 
Mr. Banks observes, that a cast iron bar an inch square, and 
fixed at the one end, and 631 pounds suspended by a wheel 
of 2 feet diameter, fixed on the other end, will break by the 
twist; though some have required more than 1000 pounds 
in similar situations to break them by the twist. 

" The strength to resist the twisting strain is as the cube 
of like lateral dimensions. 

"In concluding these plain statements it may be neces- 
sary to remind our readers, that in applying these rules to 
practical purposes, care should be taken to make the beams, 
etc., sufiiciently strong; if they are but just able to support 
the stress they will be in danger of breaking. In most cases 
the strength should be 2 or 3 times the stress, and where the 
stress may be inequal, or the pressure exerted in a variable 
manner, by jerks, etc., the strength should be considerably 
more than that. 

"In all the preceding examples the beams are supposed 
only just able to support the load. 

" The following are the results of experiments made by 
Mr. Emerson, which state the load that may be safely borne 
by a square inch rod of each: 

Pounds Avoirdupois. 

Iron rod, an inch square, will bear 76,400 

Brass 35,600 

Hempen rope 19,600 

Ivory 15,700 

Oak, box, yew, plumtree 7,850 



2^8 PRACTiCAii HlN^S ON MILl BtlittttMfl. 

Pounds Avoibdupois. 

Elm, ash, beech 6,070 

Walnut, plum 5,360 

Eed pine, holly, elder, plane, crab 5,000 

Cherry, hazel 4,760 

Alder, asp, birch, willow 4,290 

Lead 430 

Free stone 914 

Tenacity of copper compared with iron is 5:9 nearly, or 1:1.8 ; 
i. e., copper being 1, iron is 1.8. 

"Mr. Barlow's opinion of this table is, 'we shall only 
observe here, that they all fall very short of the ultimate 
strength of the woods to which they refer.' 

"Mr. Emerson also gives the following practical rule, 
viz. : ' that a cylinder, whose diameter is d inches, loaded to 
one-fourth of its absolute strength, will carry as follows : 

CWT. 

Iron 135 Xd^ 

Good rope 22xd^ 

Oak 14X^2 

Pine 9X^2 

" Captain S. Brown made an experiment on Welsh pig 
iron, and the result is described as follows : 

"'A bar of cast iron, Welsh pig, 1^ inch square, 3 feet 
6 inches long, required a strain of 11 tons, 7 cwt. (25,424 
ibs. ) to tear it asunder, broke exactly transverse, without 
being reduced in any part; quite cold when broken, particles 
fine, dark bluish grey color.' From this experiment, it 
appears that 16,265 ibs. will tear asunder a square inch of 
cast iron. 

"Mr. G. E-ennie also made some experiments on cast 
iron, and the result was, ' that a bar one inch square, cast 
horizontal, will support a weight of 18,656 lbs. — and one 
cast vertical, will support a weight of 19,488 lbs.' 

"There have been several experiments made on mallea- 
ble iron, of various qualities, by different engineers. 

" The mean of Mr. Telford's experiments, is 29 J tons. 

" The mean of Capt. S. Brown's experiments, is 20 tons, 
and the mean between these two means, is 27 tons, nearly; 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 279 

which may be assumed as the medium strength of a mallea- 
ble iron bar 1 inch square. 

"From a mean, derived by experiments, performed by 
Mr. Barlow, it appears that the strength of direct cohesion, 
on a square inch of 

Pounds. 

Box is about 20,000 

Ash " " 17,000 

Teak " " 15,0«0 

Pine " " 12,000 

Beech " " 11,500 

Oak " " 10,000 

Pear " '!^. 9,800 

Mahogany..... " '^"~. 8,000 

"Each of these weights may be taken as a correct data 
for the cohesive strength of the wood to which they belong, 
but this is the absolute and ultimate strength of the fibres; 
and therefore, if the quantity that may be safely borne be 
required, not more than two-thirds of the above values must 
be used. 

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 

METALS. 

Weight of a Cdbic Inch in 
Specii'ic Geayity. Ounces Avoirdupois. 

Arsenic 5763 3,335 

Cast antimony 6702 3,878 

Cast zinc 7190 4,161 

Cast iron 7207 4,165 

Cast tin 7291 4,219 

Bar iron 7788 4,507 

Cast nickel 7807 4,513 

Cast cobalt 7811 4,520 

Hard steel 7816 4,523 

Soft steel 7833 4,533 

Cast brass 8395 4,858 

Cast copper 8788 5,085 

Cast bismuth 9822 5,684 

Cast silver 10474 6,061 

Hammered silver 10510 6,082 

Cast lead 11352 6,569 

Mercury 13568 7,872 

Jeweler's gold 15709 '. 9,091 



280 PRACTICAL iilNTS ON MILL StJltl)tJif(3. 

Weight of a Cubic Inch in 
SPECinc Gravity. Ounces Avoirdupois. 

Gold c@in 17647 10,212 

Cast gold, pure 19258 11,145 

Pure gold, hammered. . 19361 11,212 

Platinum, pure 19500 11,285 

Platinum, hammered. . 20336 11,777 

Platinum wire 21041 12,176 

"Note. — All metals become specifically heavier by hammering. 



STONES, EARTHS, ETC. 

Weight of a Cubic Foot in 
Specific Gravity. Pounds Avoirdupois. 

Brick 2000 125.00 

Sulphur 2033 127.08 

Stone, paving 2416 151.00 

Stone, common 2520 157.50 

Granite, red 2654 165.84 

Glass, green 2642 

Glass, white 2892 

Glass, bottle 2733 

Pebble 2664 166.50 

Slate 2672. 167.00 

Marble 2742 171.38 

Chalk 2784 174.00 

Basalt 2864 179.00 

Hone, white razor 2876 179.75 

Limestone 3179 198.68 





RESINS, ETC. 






Specific Gravity. 


Specific Gravity 


Wax 


897 Tallow .. 


945 


Bone of an ox. . 


1659 Ivory . . . 


1822 



LIQUIDS. 

Specific Gravity. Specific Gravity. 

Air at earth's surface. . If Sea water 1828 

Oil of turpentine 870 Nitric acid 1218 

Olive oil 915 Vitriol 1841 

Distilled water 1000 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 281 



WOODS. 

Weight of a Cubic Foot in 
Specific Gbavitt. Pounds Avoirdupois. 

Cork 246 15.00 

Poplar 383 23.94 

Larch 544 34.00 

Elm 556 34.75 

New English pine 556 34.75 

Mahogany, Honduras. 560 35.00 

Willow 585 36.56 

Cedar 596 37.25 

Pitch pine 560 41.25 

Pear tree 661 41.31 

Walnut 671 41.94 

Pine, forest 694 43.37 

Elder 695 43.44 

Beech 696 43.50 

Cherry tree 715 44.68 

Teak 745 46.56 

Maple and Eiga pine . . 750 46.87 

Ash and Dantzic oak . . 760 47.50 

Yew, Dutch 788 ; 49.25 

Apple tree 793 49.56 

Alder 800 50.00 

Yew, Spanish 807 50.44 

Mahogany, Spanish... 852 53.25 

Oak, American 872 54.50 

Boxwood, French 912 57.00 

Logwood 913 57.06 

Oak, English 970 51.87 

Oak, sixty years cut. . . 1170 73.12 

Ebony 1331 83.18 

Lignumvitse 1333 83.31 



APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING TABLE. 

"A block of marble, measuring 6 feet long and 4 feet 
square, lies at a wharf, and the wharfinger wishes to know 
if his 10-ton crane is sufiSciently strong to lift it. : 

6 X 4 X 4 = 96, cubic feet in the block. 
171.38 lbs., weight of a cubic foot. 

171.38 X 96 

= 7 ton, 7 cwt., weight of block. 

fibs, in 1 ton = 2240 



282 PRACTICAL HIJSTTS OH MILL BUjLDlNa. 

" The 10-ton crane is therefore sufficiently strong to lilt it. 

"There are several slabs of limestone which measure alto- 
gether 300 cubic feet, and it is proposed to bring them down 
a river on a raft formed of teak logs, and which can most 
conveniently form a raft 42 feet long and 18 feet broad, what 
depth shall it require to be to float the slabs? 

198.7 lbs., weight of a cubic foot @f limestone. 

1000 

■ = 62.5 lbs., weight of a cubic foot of water. 



16 
198.7 X 300 



15 inches depth the slabs will sink the raft. 



18 X 42 X 62.5 

"1000: 12: :745:9, that is a cubic foot of teak sinks 9 inches in 

15 
water, of course 3 inches of wood above water; therefore — = 5 feet 

3 
depth the raft will sink with the slabs, which, added to 9 inches, 
gives the depth the raft will sink in the water, and therefore the 
raft should not be made less than 6 feet deep. 
12 : 6 : : 9 : 4.5 = depth the raft will sink. 

1.25 = depth the slabs will sink the raft. 

6.75= depth the raft will sink in the water when car- 
rying the slabs." 



AETICLE XIl. 

THE STEAM ENGINE AND BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

In this work it is unnecessary to say much about steam 
engines so far as construction and arrangement are con- 
cerned. Engines are not, as a rule, made by millwrights, 
nor are they usually set up or put in place by millwrights. 
They are made by the manufacturers, and by them or an 
employe skilled in the business, put in place and started. It 
sometimes happens though that engines are bought second- 
hand in very good condition, and they are generally put in 
place by a home mechanic, who may or may not understand 
his business fairly well. To such we will say : first plant a 
firm foundation ; don't be afraid of getting it too strong or 
of wasting material in the construction; better a little waste 
of material in the construction of the foundation than a 
constant wear and tear of the machine after k is started, on 
account of having a shaky foundation. There should never 
be a perceptible tremor in an engine at work, no matter 
what the load it may have to carry; but then, as a matter of 
course, it should not be loaded beyond its capacity. The 
material used for the foundation of a steam engine should 
be rock, or rock and brick, or something else not subject to 
decay, No matter what the material, the foundation should 
be put down to stay, and to stay just where it is put; but 
this cannot be done if perishable material of any kind is 
used. To the foundation the bed of the engine should be 
firmly bolted by long bolts running up through the founda- 
tion, and around which the foundation has been built. Thus 
the entire mass of the foundation and the engine bed-plate 
will be clamped together, and if there be weight enough to 



284 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUlLDiM; 

the foundation no fears of tremor or vibration in the engine 
while running, need be entertained. In adjusting the parts 
of the engine, the same rule must be observed as in adjust- 
ing other machines. A line drawn through the centre of 
the cylinder, must pass directly through the center of the 
crank-shaft, and cross the crank-shaft at right angles. This 
simple rule must be positively observed in order to insure 
the engine to work smoothly and satisfactorily. The crank- 
shaft, like all other shafts, must be level — it is not necessary 
that the cylinder should be level, but it is necessary that it 
should be in line, as before stated. The customary method 
of getting a line through a cylinder is to first construct a 
cross of two pieces of board, two or three inches wide. 
Two of these crosses must be made, one for each end of the 
cylinder. The outer ends of these crosses must be circled 
to fi-t the cylinder snugly, and then exactly in the center 
small gimlet holes must be made, through which a fine line 
must be stretched reaching beyond the crank shaft. To 
this line adjustments must be made until all the parts agree. 
Where steam power is used for making flour it is usu- 
ally a matter of some importance to the manufacturer to use 
the power as economically as possible, on account of its very 
high cost comparatively. With water power where there is 
an abundance of water, power is of but little importance, 
but with light streams it is dififerent; it then becomes neces- 
sary to procure the kind' of a motor or wheel that will do 
the greatest possible amount of work with the least possible 
quantity of water, and on the same principle must a steam 
engine be selected. If a barrel of flour can be made with 
from thirty-five to forty pounds of coal, no flour maker 
wishes to be obliged to consume sixty pounds or more to 
the barrel. To avoid this, then care must be taken in the 
selection of the engine. Going over the entire list of 
engines made for the purpose of making the best selection, 
is a pretty big field of operation, but it is not really neces- 
sary to do that, as there are always a number of prominent 
engines in the market, all of which are good; and between 



BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 285 

a large number that could be mentioned, there may not be 
much choice, so far as economy in the use of fuel is con- 
cerned. Engines in every other way well constructed and 
using an automatic cut-off, are undoubtedly the most eco- 
nomical, but are usually the most complicated, and require 
more care than ordinary engines ; but the difference in the 
saving of fuel, where fuel is an object, will more than pay 
for an expert, trusty man to run and take care of the 
engine. By the use of the automatic cut-off the steam is 
used just as it is needed, the machine regulating itself in that 
respect. If by reason of extra work, by putting on more 
machinery it it necessary to use live steam for a full quarter- 
stroke, it cuts off at that, but when the extra machitjery is 
thrown off and only an eighth-stroke of live steam is 
needed, then in a moment it cuts off" at that point, and so on 
through all the variations of heavy and light running. 

There is still another method of engine building that is 
considered economical, and that is the combined high and 
low pressure engines. For large flour mills that require a 
great deal of power, it seems likely that engines of this class, 
well constructed, are the best. They are considered econom- 
ical for other purposes, and we cannot see why they should 
not be equally valuable for flour mills on a large scale. 
Small engines for small mills would be just as well, perhaps, 
without so many attachments, which add greatly to the first 
cost, and to the necessary care afterwards. However, we do 
not know that anything very logical can be offered against 
the use of this kind of an engine of medium size. Com- 
mon practice is largely against it, and that is probably about 
all. The value of a low pressure or a condensing attach- 
ment to a steam engine is that by producing a vacuum or 
partial vacuum in a conveniently arranged apparatus, con- 
nected with the engine, the instant the exhaust part of the 
engine is opened the steam rushes to the vacuum chamber, 
where it is met by a stream of cold water, which at once 
condenses it, producing a vacuum in the cylinder the same 
as in the chamber. The steam is then assisted by the force 



286 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

of tlie vacuum in pushing the piston back. Whatever is 
gained by the vacuum pressure, less the power it requires to 
propel the condensing apparatus, is a clear gain in power, 
or anywhere from five to ten pounds of pressure to the 
square inch of piston surface that costs nothing. If it 
required fifty pounds of steam ordinarily to do the work 
without the use of the condenser, then if by its use a ten 
pound vacuum, or atmospheric pressure, could be obtained, 
forty pounds of steam in the boilers would do the same 
amount of work as the fifty pounds did without its use. In 
this, then, is a manifest saving in fuel, as well as relieving 
the strain on the boilers. But, as has been said, if engines 
of this kind are to be used, flour mill owners would have to 
get rid of the idea that many of them seem to have, that 
any kind of a man is competent to run an engine. Skilled 
men would have to be used, and skilled, careful men ought 
to be employed anyhow, no matter much what kind of an 
engine there may be, because the power generators or steam 
boilers, require to be carefully handled, not only with skill- 
ful hands, but by men of brains and rare good judgment. 
On the contrary, we are sorry to say that men of the poor- 
est judgment are quite too often employed as firemen and 
engineers having sole charge of engine and boilers. So 
far as taking care of the engine is concerned, it is a matter 
of no moment to any person or party except to the owners, 
as there is nothing at stake except dollars and cents, but it is 
somewhat different with the boiler. Human lives are often 
sacrificed by the explosion of boilers, caused frequently by 
the ignorance of those in charge. These gentlemen, many 
of them, after having made a few fires under a boiler, imag- 
ine they know all there is to know about the care of boilers, 
and thus work on in their ignorance and delusion until per- 
haps they and fragments of their boilers take a sudden flight 
into the air in search of a place where boilers do not burst; 
and were this the only damage done the world would suffer 
no very serious loss; but it quite frequently, in fact most 
always happens, that others are either mainaed or killed by 



BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 287 

the disaster. To avoid, if possible, any trouble of this kind, 
is what should be the aim of every user of steam. Steam 
boilers are but a trifle less dangerous than powder mills, 
unless handled with great care, and even then no man can 
approximate a guess as to when an explosion will occur. 
It is frequently remarked, and by men, too, who ought to 
know better, that there is no danger of a boiler exploding 
so long as there is a full guage of water. This is a most fatal 
error, and has no doubt deluded many a man into ending 
his mortal career long before he was prepared for doing it. 
The facts of the case are these : a steam boiler will burst 
just as readily, other things being equal, with a full guage of 
water as it will with a partial guage, but the force of the 
explosion will always be in proportion to the volume of 
steam in the boiler, and the pressure. A very small quan- 
tity of powder, say, an ounce, if well rammed, will burst a 
good sized rock, but has not sufficient force to remove it 
from its place, while a pound of powder in the same rock 
would be liable to scatter it around indiscriminately; and so 
it is with a boiler. When there is a full guage or over of 
water, there is not room for a very large volume of steam, 
and if under such circumstances one explodes, not a great 
deal of destruction is done ; there is force enough to kill a 
man, or several of them, if they are conveniently situated, 
but things are not torn up generally so bad. But if on the 
contrary, there is only a partial guage of water, and the 
boiler full of steam, and an explosion occurs, the destruc- 
tion is pretty general. If a boiler were allowed to run 
empty, or nearly so, until the iron become weakened by 
heat, it would, of course, under those circumstances, be more 
liable to burst with a given amount of pressure to the square 
inch than with the same amount of pressure and a full guage 
of water, and this fact has, perhaps, led to the erroneous 
theory that a boiler with a full guage of water would not 
burst. 

In order to make steam boilers sure, or as nearly sure as 
it is possible to make them, is, in the first place, to h^Y§ 



288 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDINO. 

them made of the best material and sufficiently strong to 
bear the strain. The difference in the first cost is but little, 
comparatively. One steam boiler explosion frequently causes 
more destruction of property than would be required to pay 
for a number of sets of boilers made in the best and strong- 
est manner, as they should be, and when so made should be 
placed in the care of a competent man, one who knew 
enough to know that his own life and the lives of others 
depended on the kind of care he exercised over his charge. 
If these very necessary precautions were always taken there 
would be fewer disastrous explosions. 

Before closing this article the writer would like to say 
something about the usual mode of testing a boiler, as he 
believes this to be as erroneous as the theory so common 
among many that a boiler will not explode when there is 
plenty of water in it. It has doubtless come under the 
notice of many of the readers of this book, that steam boil- 
ers have exploded with very great force in a very short time 
after they had been pronounced perfectly safe by the govern- 
ment, or other inspector. We think the mode of testing 
now in vogue is not only wrong, but it is ruinous to a very 
large degree; it serves only to weaken boilers by the great 
strain they are subjected to, without determining in very 
many cases their fitness for generating steam at a high pres- 
sure. Water is non-elastic, while steam, oh the contrary, is 
highly elastic. A greater water pressure may be brought to 
bear on the boiler, but the instant there is the slightest yield- 
ing at any point, the pressure is to that extent relieved; the 
fluid being non-elastic cannot follow it up except by forcing 
more water in, and this is no doubt frequently done, until 
the joints are started and weakened, without discovering 
any defect in the boiler. But this is not the case with steam 
when raised to a high pressure; it immediately attacks the 
weakened point and follows up the attack. A yielding of 
the iron does not relieve the strain, as in the case of the 
water pressure. On the contrary, each thousandth part of 
^n inch of yield is followed up by a still more vigorous out- 



BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 289 

ward pressure, relatively, hj the ever expanding steam, until 
at last the hard pressed and tortured iron gives way, retreats 
as it were, in disorder, and then follows all the effects of a 
disastrous steam boiler explosion. In this fact may be found 
the solution to some of the boiler explosions that have fol- 
lowed so soon after an inspector's certificate has been given. 
The water strain has weakened the boiler, but on account of 
its non-elasticity, has been unable to follow up and develop 
the weakness, while the steam, on the contrary, on account 
of its great elasticity, has discovered the weakness and fol- 
lowed it up until great mischief was done. For these seem- 
ingly very logical reasons, if steam boilers are to be put to a 
severe test, the propriety of which is, to say the least, doubt- 
ful, it should be with an elastic fluid that will develop the 
weakness that it causes, and have it remedied before putting 
it on duty as a steam generator. The best security is to 
make the boilers strong enough, and keep them so by care- 
ful occasional examinations. 



21 



ARTICLE XIII. 

RETROSPECTIVE SOME PARTING WORDS. 

We commenced this work with the view of carrying by 
an easy transition the mind of the reader, or the student in 
mill building and milling, from the primary to the present 
highest stage of the art. How well we have succeeded oth- 
ers will have to determine. The writer is a practical mill- 
wright, who obtained whatever of knowledge of the business 
he possesses by close application to the business, without the 
aid of works of this kind, as, in fact, none are in existence. 
It is true there are a number of general mechanical works 
that are very valuable, but they are chiefly designed to aid 
those who are already well advanced in mechanical skill and 
knowledge; and the same is largely true of works relating 
to flour milling especially. It was the lack of a work of this 
kind, felt by the author in years gone by, that induced him 
to undertake, in a plain, simple way, the present work. It 
was that that induced him to begin with the apprentice at 
the very moment of his first introduction to the jack-plane 
and hand-saw, to teach him something about how both should 
be handled, and the importance of handling both always to 
the best of his ability, on the principle that whatever is 
worth doing at all is worth doing well. The apprentice 
should always aim to do his best and strive to make every 
present efibrt excel the previous one. By this means only 
can he hope to become master of his business. If this lesson 
was not impressed in the beginning of the book, it was in- 
tended; and if it was, a repetition of it here can do no harm. 

From the first lessons on shoving the plane and the saw, 
the learner has been carried to the more diflicult task of 



RETROSPECTION. 291 

framing — difficult to tlie beginner only; the advanced 
mechanic sees no mystery in framing; cutting a mortise 
requires little or no effort, but with the learner it is quite 
difficult; do what he will, somehow the chisel seems deter- 
mined to run under, and the mortise when finished is larger 
every way at the bottom than at the top. But a little careful 
practice and the judicious use of a small square soon enables 
even the apprentice to make a very creditable mortise. 
After learning to mortise, stave-dressing has been introduced 
to our apprentice. This is done as a kind of relief from the 
more difficult task of learning to mortise, and while stave- 
dressing requires no great amount of skill, it still requires 
considerable practice to do it well. However, the flour mill 
builder has but little of that kind of work to do. From 
stave-dressing we set him to dressing conveyor and other 
octagonal shafts; this being a job that requires more atten- 
tion and more skill, longer time is expended in its study. 
To a man with a matured intellect, whether a mechanic or 
not, laying off and dressing a conveyor-shaft might not seem 
a very difficult thing to do, with chances for a little observa- 
tion ; but with the boy at first sight it looks like a herculean 
task. However, a little practice and some good thinking 
soon removes all the obstacles. The apprentice boy must 
learn to think, if he does not he will never learn much of 
anything else. Habits of correct thinking are of the high- 
est importance to the millwright; let the boy think for him- 
self and think independently, but do not allow egotism and 
conceit to get the mastery. Following the dressing of con- 
veyor and other similar shafts is the task of putting in the 
gudgeons; the one follows the other naturally, the latter 
being by far the most difficult job, sometimes requiring all 
the skill of the advanced workman ; but the beginner has to 
learn and we have kept him right along, or tried to, in regu- 
lar order, and we think if the lesson has been well studied 
the boy will have no serious trouble, ordinarily, in making 
a fair job of getting the gudgeons in. After the gudgeons 
baye been put in, the boy has been set to making the con-r 



:292 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

veyor, with instructions liow to lay out the shaft, bore the 
holes, and drive the flights. 

After the apprentice has mastered the situation so far as 
presented, which, as a matter of course, takes somewhat 
longer than it has taken to write it, he is supposed to be able 
to take a step higher, in fact, become almost a full grown 
journeyman, in the use of tools at least, and therefore he is 
next called upon to build a husk-frame. A husk-frame should 
be put together in the best possible manner, and hence we 
have not thought it advisable to put the apprentice on it 
until the rudiments have been well learned, and he has 
learned to handle tools well and to think well ; for by think- 
ing the judgment is improved, and a good judgment where 
there are no other available guides, is of a vast deal of 
importance in getting up a good husk-frame; audit is pre- 
sumed that after working and studying and getting so far 
along the skill and judgment can be risked on the husk- 
frame. Following the construction of the husk-frame, neces- 
sarily comes the setting and adjusting of the bedstone. 
This lesson has been taught as well as the circumstances 
would allow, and is certainly quite full enough to be of mate- 
rial assistance to all who are not already familiar with the 
operation. Then the mode of making a curb is described, 
and given all the attention it probably deserves, as it may be 
regarded as a kind of an intervening lesson, or a sort of a 
recreation and rest of the brain ; it serves to keep the hands 
skillful without taxing the head to any great extent. After 
this follow^s quite a lengthy lesson on furrowing, facing, put- 
ting in the irons and balancing the runner. Considerable 
space is devoted to balancing, not so much in describing a 
practical mode of doing it as in demonstrating the theory. 
The author holds that the best way of enabling the learner 
to balance a stone is to make him fully acquainted with the 
principles involved, and then let him devise his own method, 
if the mode of doing it has not already been provided for. 
This is a lesson for developing the intellect, while it to some 
extent rests the muscles, Then again follows a general les- 



EETROSPECTION. 293 

son in reference to drivers, springs, portable mills, speed of 
burrs, etc. These are all matters of a greater or less import- 
ance, and should be well studied. If the information here 
given does not make everything entirely plain, it at least 
starts a train of thought and reflection, which if followed up 
as it should be in a practical way soon develops a full knowl- 
edge 'in the seeker after more light. 

From this on, the arrangement is more general: the 
cleaning of wheat is discussed as an important element in 
2:ood flour making;; the arrano^ement of cleaning machinerv 
is made a matter of some note, in the belief that the more 
conveniently it can be arranged the better it is, not that the 
work of machines is in anyway improved, but the trouble 
and expense of handling the wheat is greatly lessened. The 
constructing of bolting chests and the arrangement of bolt- 
ing cloth, and the whole system of bolting generally, is con- 
sidered at some length, but occupies no more space than its 
merits deserve, not so much, perhaps, because on successftil 
bolting much depends in flour making, and while the sub- 
ject has been by no means exhausted, still there can be a 
great deal of information gathered from the articles on bolt- 
ing in both parts of the book. Xext comes a lengthy dis- 
sertation on elevators, the mode of construction, manner of 
discharging, their speed, and also, something about spout- 
ing. The part of this article relating to the speed of eleva- 
tors will doubtless be severely criticised by many practical 
men, because of its utter disregard of generally accepted 
principles involved in the matter: but it can do no harm, as 
the more the matter is talked about the more we are all apt 
to learn about it — more especially if the parties who do the 
talking will talk from a well-poised, practical stand point. 
The adjusting of shafting, the filling of cog-wheels, and the 
construction of wooden water-wheels, each come in for a 
share of consideration, and they are each subjects of import- 
ance. Making water-wheels is not now so much done by 
the millwright as it used to be, still there is a great deal of 
it done yet, and it is well to know something about how it 



294 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BtJILDINd. 

ouglat to be done. Cog-wlieels, on the contrary, are in every 
day use and will be; also shafting, which must have a place 
while naachinery moves, and a familiar lesson on both of 
these is in the estimation of the author of the highest import- 
ance, because a millwright who cannot put up a line of shaft- 
ing well, level and straight, and cog or fill a wheel so that it 
will run easy and smooth, is not considered much of a 
mechanic; hence the young millwright should exert himself 
to understand these matters well. An article on rules for 
calculating the speeds of gearing and pulleys, makes, as the 
author thinks, a very valuable feature of the work, as the 
effect has been made to make the matter plain and simple 
easily understood, and at the same time reliable. These 
rules should all be well studied, and committed to memory 
as far as practicable. The first part of the book closes sub- 
stantially with a series of tables and explanations on the 
number of horse-power that can be safely transmitted by 
gearing, belting, and shafting. These tables have been com- 
piled with a great deal of care, and while, no doubt, imper- 
fections will be developed, they are the best set of tables of 
the kind in existence known to the author, and are therefore 
all the more valuable for reference. Tables of this kind 
certainly assist very materially in systematizing the arrange- 
ment of gearing, belting, and shafting — but little is gener- 
ally known about the relative transmitting power of either 
— and hence great disproportion is often discovered in the 
arrangement of each. By a careful study of the subject this 
could be avoided and greater uniformity, and consequently, 
better results would follow. 

The second part of the work is devoted more exclusively 
to the later or improved methods of milling. In accordance 
with the custom, the face of the stone has been changed, wide 
furrows have taken the place of narrow ones, the face sur- 
face has been reduced and made comparatively snaooth; this 
means making ready for high grinding. Then the purifiers 
are introduced and their arrangement and management dis- 
cussed; following are further and more elaborate instructions 



RETROSPECTION. 295 

for bolting, introducing a method, not so generally practiced 
or known, ending with a brief description of a "new pro- 
cess" mill, in which all the essential parts are arranged so as 
to give the reader a very good idea of how such a mill 
should be built. After all this, the later methods of gradual 
reduction is very fully described, beginning with a system 
purely American, and the latest system introduced, and end- 
ing with a description of the Hungarian method. This ends 
the duty of the book so far as it relates to mill building and 
milling especially. 

The remainder of the work relates to matters of a gen- 
eral character, useful to all classes of mechanics, and should 
be well studied by millwrights particularly who are not 
already well informed in such matters. But after all, after 
the book has been well read and well studied, no boy or man 
must imagine himself qualified to build or operate a mill. 
Even were the work much larger, more exhaustive, much 
clearer and more direct than it is, still it would be 
insufficient to make a thorough millwright or miller of any 
man. A thorough and complete practical knowledge of this 
or any other calling can only be obtained by close applica- 
tion and persistent hard work. The boy who expects to suc- 
ceed iniany useful calling, and more especially a mechanical 
calling, must begin early and work industriously ; and were 
it not so, but little value could be attached to a good trade or 
useful calling of any kind. If it were possible for a man by 
a merely theoretical knowledge of a trade or calling to 
become at once master of it practically, then all would soon 
be thoroughly practical men, one perhaps no better than the 
other, thus destroying the incentive to hard work in trying 
to excel. The proper ambition, and the one that should 
move the hand and fire the brain of every youth commenc- 
ing in the world, is to excel in whatever he undertakes, and 
to do that he must toil, expending brain and muscle, and 
getting in return therefor knowledge and power. There- 
fore we say to every apprentice boy that this book, nor no 
other book ever written, or that ever will be written, can 



296 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 

make of him a good practical mechanic, but it can greatly 
aid him, and for that it is designed. The wearied muscle, 
made so by the toil of the day, can in the early evening be 
rested by the gentle exercise of the brain on the book; and 
the additional knowledge thus obtained imparts new energy 
for the next day's toil. 

And to the miller or mill owner we wish to say that they 
cannot learn how to build a mill out of a book, not even 
this one, and must not, therefore, think that anything in the 
shape of a wood-butcher is competent to build a mill, or any 
important part of one, by the aid of a book alone. 'No man 
who contemplates building a mill, unless he be a millwright 
himself, should make a single move before consulting a mill- 
wright, and when it has been decided u^^on to build a mill, 
then should a skillful millwright be employed to draw a plan. 
The cost of this is something to start with, but it will be 
more than replaced, or it ought to be if the plan is perfect, 
before the building is completed, in the loss of time and 
material in doing guess-work. It is true that incompetent 
men calling themselves millwrights, and who are fair 
draughtsmen, may sometimes delude men into employing 
them to build mills or doing important repair jobs. This 
can generally be avoided by employing none but th'ose who 
are known to be good mechanics and men of good judg- 
ment. But to the mill owner this book and other good 
works are useful in affording general information, or for 
holding in check men who are not thoroughly competent. 
The mill owner by having a good theoretical knowledge of 
what he wants, although w^ithout the necessary practical 
knowledge to do it himself, can at least determine 
whether or not it is being done as it should be, and have 
the corrections made if any are needed. A work of this 
kind can never make a millwright, but it is of great value 
to the boy learning the trade and for reference; of great 
value after the trade is learned, and equally valuable for 
millers and mill owners for the same purpose. All may 
learn something never before known, or at least never con- 



JRETROSPECTION. ' ^ 29*7 

sidered; but none can take the book and build a mill success- 
fully without having some previous practical knowledge of 
the business. 

And now a word to millwrights in general, the old mill- 
wrights, those who are competent and doing business : they 
should employ apprentices; if they do not the stock of mill- 
wrights will soon run out. The business seems to be rapidly 
degenerating, and yet it should not be so. It is a time-hon- 
ored trade and should be venerated not only for its past but 
for the great use it should be to the future. It is presuma- 
ble the many changes that have been made in the past quar- 
ter of a century has a great deal to do with this tendency to 
degenerate. If it were necessary, as formerly, for the mill- 
wright to build or make everything about a mill ; if he had 
to make the water-wheels, the shafts, the cog-wheels, the 
pulleys, and everything else, in fact, then, perhaps, more 
attention would be paid to educating new millwrights. But 
as it is, not nearly so much work is required of the mill- 
wright in building a mill, the most of the strictly mechani- 
cal work is done at neighboring machine shops; and as that 
part of the work that is required to be done by the mill- 
wright can be, with a good foreman to look after and super- 
intend it, done by good ordinary carpenters, if they can be 
hired cheap enough to make it profitable, it is by this means 
millwrights are being daily manufactured in some localities 
by wholesale. These carpenters, many of them, after work- 
ing awhile on a mill job esteem themselves competent mill- 
wrights, and bid for jobs on their o^vn account, thus injuring 
the trade in general, and those they do work for in particu- 
lar. There are very many of just such millwrights in this 
country to-day who ought to be weeded out, and there can 
be no better way of doing it than for millwrights to take 
apprentices and educate them into the business, and thereby 
create a stock of competent men to fill the places of those 
who are now in the business, and thus maintain the stand- 
ing of the trade. In this way can good mechanics be made 
available and plentiful, and when such are required by mill 



^98 



PRACTICAL HINTS ON MILL BUILDING. 



men in any section of country, they can be readily obtained, 
without the extra expense and trouble that now fre([uently 
attends the procuring of a competent millwright to do a job 
of work; and, too, it would do away with the excuse often 
offered in apologizing for a bad job, that no good mill- 
wrights were to be had. Educate millwrights from boys, 
and enough of them, and all will be well done. 




APPENDIX. 



BEIAEKS. 



The Appendix of this work i,s devoted 
exclusively to the business cards of leading 
mill-furnishing establishments and manufact- 
urers of various kinds of mill machinery and 
supplies. Those here represented are among 
the best, and are all strictly reliable houses, 
with whom any millwright or mill owner can 
deal, with the assurance of being well and 
fairlv treated. 



INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Page. 

G. & W. Todd & Company, . . . i 

ISTORDYKE & MaRMON CoMPANY, . , . II, III 

John A. Hafner, .... iv, v, vi, xvii 
Caldwell & "Watson, .... vii 

Huntley, Holcomb & Heine, . . viii, ix, xxiii 

Richmond City Mill Works, ... x 

EwD. P. Allis & Company, . . . xi 

Williams & Orton Manufacturing Company, xii 

John T. ISToye & Son, .... xiii 

John Higgins, ..... xiv 

James Leffbl & Company, . . . . xv 

MuNSON Brothers, . . . . xvi 

H. Simon, ..... xviii, xix 

R. L. DOWNTON, ..... XX 

Griscom & Company, .... xxi 

Barnard & Leas Manufacturing Company, . xxii 

Howes, Babcock & Company, , . . xxiy 



APPENDIX. 



Kstablislied 1835 



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Office, 917-919 N. Second Street 



FACTORIES, 



907 to 919 N. Second, and 906 to 918 Collins Sts. 

ST. LOUIS. 



S£ND FOR PRICE LIST AND CATALOGUE. 



APPENDIX. 



NEW ERA MILL 

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Proof and Red Staff Included. 

SEND FOR DESCRIPTION AND PRICE LIST. 

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Founders and Machinists. Plans for Mills. Consulting Engineers 

always ready to save you from costly mistakes. 



APPENDIX. 



Ill 



iBXio XiTJS i'\;^:h3 nvcA-iciEiies o:f 

Flouring Mill Mach.iner3r 

Mill Stones a Specialty. 




During the last qviarter of a century our mill stone business has 
been built up from small beginnings to one of the largest in the 
United States. We nsually keep from one to two thousand blocks, 
and fifty to one hundred pairs of stones on hand. We have the blocks 
selected by our expert at the quarries in France, and import them 
ourselves. Our facilities for turning out first-class work of this kind 
are unexcelled by any manufacturer in the United States. Our long 
experience as millers, and, of late, in designing, making and complet- 
ing the entire work of some of the largest new process mills, and hav- 
ing in our employ men experienced in the manufacture and use of 
burrs, we are able to furnish our customers just the quality of goods 
they need for their particular class of work, and are constantly filling 
orders for mill stones to take the place of those made by others. 



DuFour & Go's Bolting Cloth, Belting, Pulleys | Shafting 

Before you purchase anything in this line get a 
Special Estimate from us. 

NORDYKE & MARMON CO. 

INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 



IV 



APPENDIX. 




A Scientific Conversation in a European Hotel — A 

Humorous Account of the Primitive Metiiod of Transport- 
ing a Mill Stone in Germany. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN. 



Mr. Sigismund Low, a prominent civil engineer of the United 
States, while traveling in Germany for the purpose of scientific re- 
search, met a former college friend, Baron Wuertenau, at Heidelberg, 
with whom, after discussing various applications of technical science, 
he had the following conversation : 

Sigismund Low. "My nephew wrote me, before I left America, 
that any information I might be able to give him relating to the latest 
and best improvements in American mill machinery would be of 
special service to him." 

Baron Wuertenau. " Pardon the interruption, Mr. Low, but 
many millers who have visited America tell me that of the large num- 
ber of improved American machines very many have to be thrown 
aside as useless. 

S. L. " That is quite true ; there are many worthless machines put 
into the market, but in a majority of cases the fault is with the miller, 
and not in the machine." B. W. " How so ? " 

S. L. " Well, I have seen stately palace-like buildings fitted up in 
the most elegant style from grinding floor to roof, built apparently to 
be ornamental rather than useful, while the most important part^ the 
pit gear, runs as if intended to grind bones or cement. Any variation 
of motion, however slight, will make a burr quiver or wabble, causing 
rapid changes of the relative positions of the grinding surface, and 
thus grind too fine at some points and too coarse at others. If the 
action of the stone is thus defective, all the improved machinery in 



APPENDIX. V 

the mill will not remedy the effect produced by this evil. Let me tell 
you of a model mill I saw which combines improvements on this vital 
part of mill machinery. I had heard a great deal of the celebrated 
model mill built by Mr. Jno. A. Hafner, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 
and therefore stopped at that city to see it. I was really astonished at 
the number of ingenious improvements and sound JDractical ideas 
combined in so small a compass, among the most important of which 
are the Eureka Coil Spring and Eureka Friction Clutch, which are 
also important improvements for threshing machines driven either 
by horse or steam, as they save fully twenty-five per cent, of power. 
Mr. Hafner has certainly reduced the study of springs to a science, 
as, in addition to his celebrated spring he has invented a clock which 
has run continuously one year without re-winding. I made a number 
of tests with the model mill and it exceeded my most sanguine expec- 
tation. I purchased this duplicate model for my nephew." 

B. W. ''What are those two hand wheels near the stone used for ? " 

S. L. " The one to the left connects with Friction Clutch on driv- 
ing wheel; the other raises or lowers pinion. Thus the miller can 
stop or start the stone at will, and lift pinion out of or place it in gear 
without leaving his post." 

B. W. " Why is it that belt motion should vary 20 per cent ? " 

S. L. " That is easily explained. A belt is merely a transmitter, 
and not a reservoir or equalizer of power, and if there is any variation 
in the motion of the driving pulley it is transmitted to the spindle 
pulley and consequently to the stone.", 

B. W. "■If so many American millers build steam mills upon a 
plan which actually loses 38 per cent, of -power why do they make so 
much ado about the gain of two or three per cent, by water wheel?" 

S. L. '' Thousands of millers throughout the United States have 
seriously considered this question, and as a result, they are rapidly 
adopting the Eureka Spring and Hafner 's system, which absolutely 
saves this thirty-eight per cent, of power by reducing friction and 
equalizing the motion. In fact, these improvements have been adopt- 
ed everywhere in the States, except in a small community of Penn- 
sylvania Dutch, who are, in their characteristic slowness, identical 
with the native Germans of Hutzelwald, on the Rhine. By the way, 
have you ever heard the Hutzelwald anecdote V " 

B. W. "I know the Hutzelwalders are a good, honest, indus- 
trious, but slow, people, who are adverse to any innovations or im- 
provements, but I have never heard the anecdote." 

S. L. " Well, these people decided to build a mill. They quarried 
and cut a mill-stone from the hill, three hundred feet above the mill 
site, and were at a loss to know how to get it down. They decided to 
let it roll down, but, unfortunately, it turned to the left, arid ran down 
a ravine. After several days dilligent search they found it in a thick- 
et, one and a half miles from the mill. Simply recognizing the fact 
that the blunder was made in not giving it a proper start, they, with 
great difficulty, carried it to the top of the hill from which it was start- 
ed. Lest it be lost again, one of the party put his head through the 
eye of the stone, intending to accompany it down the hill in this man- 
ner, and in case it departed from the intended course, he promised to 
whistle, that the others might find it. Hannes (who in his young days 
had been hostler in an artillery corps), with the air of a military ex- 
pert, proceeded to make a reconnoissance of the field, and aimed the 
stone direct for the mill door, gave the command, ' fire ! ' and off they 
let it go. The weight of a man on one side, of course, caused the stone 
to rapidly change lis course, and man and stone went crashing through 
bushes and trees, finally landing at the bottom of a small lake. The 
parties on the hill vainly waited for a signal — vainly searched for the 
stone. After carefully considering the matter, they concluded that 



VI 



APPENDIX. 



the man, considering the stone was of considerable value, had ran 
away with it. Therefore the Biirgermeister was authorized to publish 
the following : ■■ Reward ! ! ! Five thalers vil becomen to de man as 
vil arrest eine deutschman mit eine mill shtone arount mit his head.' ■" 






bD 



So. 

co'o 
0) 

c 




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T 


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Can be Applied Aliove or Belo^v Pinion. 




_REKi 

WAR RANTED 
I TO PREVENT 
I ^^CK-V^5V\. 




Patented February 2, 18 



December 30, 1873; October 5, 1375. Reissue, June 22, 1875 ; October 24, 1 876. 
Patented in Canada, October 25, 1876. 



The Hafner Eureka Friction Ciutcii 
for Mill Gearing. 

CAVEAT FILED. 

Is an inveution of great importance, constructed on an entirely 
new plan; it holds automatically, and is connected witli the driving 
bevel wheel. It is so arranged that the miller turns a hand-wheel on 
the grinding floor, which will draw a brake upon the clutch and open 
it, thus stopping the wheel. By turning another hand-wheel (also on 
the grinding floor), it will either raise the pinion out of gear or put it 
in gear, as the case may be. When the miller loosens the first hand- 
wheel, the clutch closes, thus it starts the driving wheel and runs 
with shaft, whether it is driving the stone or not. Thus there is no 
wear on the shaft or eye of the wheel ; and the miller can lighten the 
stone, start or stop it, and raise pinion out or put in gear alone while 
on the floor, without stopping the engine. 




APPENDIX. 



Vll 



THE CALDV/ELL 





'J^ 1 m ^-^i^, 





WROUGHT IRON HOLLOW SHAFT 

Conveyor 

Is best adapted to Millers' use in all material 
to he moved hy a Conveyor. 

It is especially superior in Flour, Middlings, 
Bran, Chop and all kinds of Grain. 

It is light, True, Strong, Durable, Cheap; will 
not sag or warp; can be run at high rate of speed; 
takes little power to move large guantities of ma- 
terial. Made in all sizes or capacities; Iron, Steel 
or Galvanized Iron. Mdress, 



CALDWELL & WATSON, 



Hoom 9, McIiCan's Block. 



St. Louis, Missouri. 



Vlll 



APPENDIX. 



EXCELSIOR 

Disintegrating Middlings Pnriller 



THE ONLY MACHINE OF THE KIND WHICH 



Takes the Dust, Fine Bran and Fiber out of the 

Middlings by Patent Process Before they are Passed 
upon the Bolt Cloth Sieves. 




Patented February 11, 1873; September 23, 1873; May 11, 1875; 
Process Patented February 11, 1873. 

No Complicated Brushing Devices or Traveling Air Blast; no roughing up 
and wearing out of bolt cloth by brushes; Sieves interchange- 
able ; Strength, Utility and Beauty combined. 

THE ONLY MACHINE MANUFACTURED UNDER UNDISPUTED PATENTS 



MANUFACTURED BY 



HUNTLEY, HOLCOMB & HEINE, 

Silver Creek, Chaiitauq-aa County, 

NEW YOKK. 



APPENDIX. 



IX 



EXCELSIOR 

Adj ustable Bran Duster 

THE MOST POPULAR MACHINE OF THE KIND. 



Most Perfect in Mechanism; Most Durable; Most Economical; Most 
Efficient; Does tlie work with Less Power than any- 
other Bran Duster. 



3S 






2»C 




5® 

SB- 



tSBS 
PS 



ADJUSTABLE WHILE RUNNING. 

Unsorpassed for Dusting Regroand or Crushed Bran after High Grinding. 
The Best Device for Dusting Middlings before going to the Purifier. 
WE CHALLENGE COMPARISON ON THESE POINTS. 



Patented May 12, 1869 ; July 22, 1870. 

Also in England, Ireland and Scotland. 



MANUFACTURED BY 



HUNTLEY, HOLCOMB & HEINE 

Silver Creek, Chautauqua County, 



APPENDIX. 



44J 







U4 



APPENDIX. 



XI 




Ewd. P. Allis & Co., (Reliance Works,) 

MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, 

MILL BUILDERS ^ FURNISHERS 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



Grooved or Fluted Chilled Iron Roller Mills; 
Smooth Chilled Iron Roller Mills; 

Porcelain (Wegmann's Pat.) Roller Mills; 

AND THE RETNOLDS-GORLISS ENGINE. 

"We invite Correspondenco. EWD. P. ALLIS & CO. 



xu 



APPENDIX. 




Shafting, Hangers, Pulleys, Journal Boxes, 
Couplings, Collars, 

MILL IKONS AND MACHINEEY 

Transmission of Power by 




Ifllilliafus & Orton Ml {,W^ 

STERLING, ILL. 



ELEVATOR AND MILL BUILDERS 

And Manufacturers Agents for 

All kinds Special Mill Machinery, Water Wheels, 
Steam Engines, Etc., Etc. 




MANUFACTURERS OF THE 



SYSTEM OF WATER WORKS 

Send for Circulars. 



APPENDIX, XIU 



JOHN T. NOYE & SON, 

BTj:F:F.i^i_iO, nsr. ir. 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



French Burr Millstones 

PORXABI.E FEED MII^I^S 

In Wood or Iron Frames, 

FULL CULLED 11 ILLS 



■^PORTABLE X MIDDLINGS x GRINDERS-^ 

Improved Bolting Chests, 
£leTator Cups, Iron Bolting^ Reels, Mill Picks, 

SHAFTINa, PULLEYS ® GEARING. 



AGENTS FOR 



ALL THE BEST CLEANING MACHINERY 

Du Four & Company's Celebrated Bolting Cloth. 



Mills Planned and Furnished on the Latest New Process System. 

JOHN T. NOYE & SON, 

Buffalo, IV. Y., IT. S. A. 
Send for Illustrated Catalogue. 



XIV 



APPENDIX. 



JOHN C. HIGGINS, 



Manufacturer and Dresser of 



MILL PICKS 

CHICAGO, ILL. 




Picks will be sent on thirty or sixty clays' trial, to any responsible 
miller in the United States or Canadas, and if not superior in every 
respect to any other pick made in this or any other country, there 
will be no charge, and I will pay all express charges to and from 
Chicago. All my picks are made of a special steel, which is 

Manufactured Espressly for me 

at Sheffield, England. My customers can thus be assured of a good 
article, and share with me the profits of direct importation. Refer- 
ences furnished from every State and Territory in the United States 
and Canada. 

Send for Circular and Price List. 

JOHX C. HIGGIISS, 

164 West Kiuzie Street. OHICA-G-O, IXjXj. 



APPENDIX. XV 



James Leffel's Improved 

DOUBIE TURBIl WATER WML 



Q » O 



UJ 



Z o 



CO 




r 

m cr 






(f) 



Qc iniiniiiiii 11 ' ^ 



There is, perhaps, no surer evidence of practical nierit than suc- 
cess long established and widely extended, and based upon repeated 
practical trials nnder the most exacting conditions. An invention of 
but little real utility may obtain a temporary reputation by means of 
shrewd management in bringing it before the public, but its deficien- 
cies will inevitably come to light, and a final verdict will be pro- 
nounced upon it in accordance with the facts. Cases in point are of 
almost daily occurrence, in which a transient popularity is gained by 
a device which will not endure the test of experience, and which 
speedily disappears from the market. It is, therefore, hardly too 
much to say that the fact that seven thousand of the James Leifel 
Double Turbine Water Wheels are now in successful operation, under 
heads varying from li to 300 feet, and that the demand for them still 
continues, constitutes the strongest possible evidence that it is what 
it is claimed to be by its inventor and manufacturers — the most per- 
fect water "wheel ever offered, for sale. 

The facilities of the Company are now unsurpassed, as they have 
recently erected a set of new shops covering several acres of ground,, 
and supplied them throughout with new and special machinery of the 
most approved pattern and principle of operation, and are, therefore, 
prepared to do work on a large scale and in short time. 

It has always been the aim and constant effort of the firm of 
James Leffel & Co. to maintain the high reputation which the Leffel 
Wheel has so justly acquired, and to hold it, as it has been, in the very 
front rank of hydraulic motors. Customers may depend that especial 
care will be taken to use nothing but the very best quality of material — 
in fact we are constantly improving the same, as we now will use for 
some of the parts of first sizes up to the 35-inch, a fine quality of steel 
where before only iron was used. 

Send for Wheel Book and Price List. 

JAMES LEFFEL & CO., 

Or, 110 Liberty St., New York. Spring^field, Olilo. 



XVI 



APPENDIX. 




A. I 







W]ieat-Floiiring> and Corn-G-rinding' 

PORTABLE MILLS 

CENTENNIAL AWARDS: 
International Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876. 
International Exhibition, Santiago, Chili, 1875. 

Every Mill 'Warranted, Every Mill Fully Inspected and 
Every Mill placed on its Merits. 

In Grinding Wheat, Corn, Regrinding Middlings, and in Buckwheat Flouring, 

"WE CSALLENGE COMFETITIOIT. 

MUNSON BROS., Utica, New York. 



APPENDIX. 



XVll 



^ri)ft1ii!iEIM£'-Es 



"'' The hub of pulley A fits in*^ 
bearing B on bridgetree, the arms 
emerge near the top of hub and 
are curved down bo that the cen- 
tre line of rim and sidepull of belt 
are brought in centre line of bear- 
ing B. The spindle C has an inde- 
pendent movement (bei ng smaller 
than bore of hub), and is connect- 
ed to hub by Eureka Coil Spnng D 
and Univtrsal Driver E. Step G is 
made oil-tight by packing K. The 
antity of oil in bearing is 
class tube J. 




aNt)*A^HA:FVNER,. V '^^^ 



The Hafner Equlibrium Driving Pulley 



FOB MILL SPINDLES. 



The two greatest objections to the use of belts to drive 
millstones are — 

FIRST — SIDE PULL ON SPINDLE. 

To prevent this several devices have been resorted to, such as bcariugs uear the toe, 
etc. ; but it is extremely difficult to have the spindle as tight to bearing when tramming as 
it is when driving a burr. 

SECOND — VARIABLE TENSION. 

With the very best engines the crank acts with the greatest leverage when it is at right 
angles to the ceiitre lined stroke; thus the speed and consequently tension of belt on 
spiudie-pulley is greatest at that time— say to the amount of twelve-horse power. But as 
the leverage gradually diminishes to zero, as the crank is passing the dead points, it is evi- 
dent that the tension of belt will diminish in same ratio. But as there is a slight degree 
of stretch in a belt, it may still retain a tension of, say two-horse power, which would 
make impossible the back-lash in driver, which would otherwise result from the momen- 
tum of the millstone. Thus the miller is left under the impression that the stone is driven 
with smooth and uniform motion, when in reality it is driven by impulses varying from 
two to twelve-horse power twice in every revolution of the engine. 

That a stone canuot revolve on a perfectly horizontal plane when affected by such dis- 
advantages, it is unnecessary to repeat. What is desired is to overcome these objections ; 
and for a complete and satisfactory method of doing so, we refer you to the accompanying 
cut and explanations, 

a2 



XVlll 



APPENDIX. 



Simon's Complete Rollef Milling Sjstem 

(DAVERIOS AND SECK'S PATENTS.) 






C31 "O 

^-g i 

^£ I 

2 =1 so 

■2S : 

CD O 

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o 2 •*- 

■=- &) HO 



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Results Guaranteed Equal to Austrian 

Both in Percentages and Quality. 

{^= A Complete Milling PUmt, on this system, will De exhibited in operation at the 

comiua; Clueinimti Exhibition. . ^:^ i i i .„„ 

%^Six complete K^our Mills, on this system, in conrse of erection m England alone. 

Address, jj SIMON, Engineer, 

mancUester, England, 



APPENDIX. 



XIX 



Simon's Complete Roller Milling Sfstem 

(Davebio's and Seck's Patents.) 



Heinrich Seck's Patent 




UNIVKRSAI. 





[ 



Coiiibiiies Scalping Reel and Dressing Cylinder in one. 



Secures Increased Durability of Silk, Great Econ- 
omy in First Cost, and Large Reduction 
of Space and Power. 



Arvaiigements are now in piogress for the manufacture of these ma- 
chines by one of the first and best knoAvn American engineering firms. 
Address, 

Mancliester, Hngrlatid* 



XX 



APPENDIX. 



The Downton rour-B,oller Mil 




The Neatest, Strongest and Most Complete Machine in the Market. 
Flour from Middlings Ground on these Rolls is 
the Very Best Made. 



No oil on the floor. No noise. Differential speed. Perlect. leveling adjustment. 

Can be driven by one belt from any direction. 

Corrugated rolls are a specialty, covered by broad patents. 

We warrant them to be of equal capacity to any other machine in the market; and we 
warrant their work to be superior to rhat oi any other machine, whether working on wheat 
in the first reductions or cleaning up bran from wheat ground on millstones. 
GRADUAL REDUCTION.— Our Mr. R. L. Downton gives his special study to the plan- 
^^— ^^^— — ^■^— — ning and arranging mills for milling on the gradual reduction 
plan, and we will contract to build or alter any mill for this process, guaranteeing the 
results to be far superior to any other method. Address, 

Downton Middlings Purifier Manufacturing Co. 

114 SOUTH MAIN STREET, ST. LOUIS, MO. 



APi'ENDIlJi. 



XXI 



DIAMOND ' 

MILLSTONE DRESSERS 

WITH 

McFeeley's I m prove merits. 




Facing, Cracking, Furrow-Dressing and Burrs 
taken out of wind, done with One Machine. 

Will do More and Better Work than CAN be 
done with a pick, and will do it in one-tenth the 
time. 

THEY ARE USED IN THE BEST MILLS. 



Send for Circitlar and Price List. 



QRISCOM & CO.^ 



Scliuylkill County. 



ManufiicturerB and Owners of Patents, 

Pottsville, Penti. 



XXll 



APPENDIX. 



Barnard & Leas Mfg. Co. 

MAKERS OF THE 

VICTOR. BBiTJSH SCOTJUE'iI, 

THE BEST MADE. 





WE ARE, ALSO, SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF 

The Victor Smutter and Separator. 

The Victor Lengthened Scourer. 

Barnard's Dustless Wheat Separator and Oat and 

Weed Extractor. 
Barnard's Dustless Receiving Separator. 
Barnard's Dustless Screenings Separator. 
Eureka Flour Packer ( Mattison's Patent). 
Eureka Bran Packer (Mattison's and Barnard's 

Patents ). 
Barnard's Wheat Grader and Cockle Extractor. 
Barnard's Dustless Warehouse Separator. 
Duplex Separator. 

Barnard's Dustless Elevator Separator. 
Victor Corn Sheller. 
Barnard's Dustless Corn Cleaner. 



APPENDIX. 



XXI 11 



IE 21:0 IE X-.S I O lEE 

RUBBER BALL SIEVE CLEANING ATTACHMENT 



Patented Jan. -21, 1879, Aug. 12, 1879. 




The foregoing cut will fully explaiu the operaticu of this simple device. As is well 
kuowu, we use in our EXCELSIOR MIDDLINGS PUKIFIER our Patented Inter- 
changeable Sieve, one of which, with Sieve Cleaning Attachment, is shown in above sec- 
tional and perspective cut. 

Across the bottoms of our sieves, which are covered with bolting cloth in the usual 
manner, we stretch i'rom side to side a No. 14 wire at intervals of one and one-half inches, 
and then a wire cloth of one-quarter inch mesh, and in the compartments formed by the 
wire cloth on the bottom, bolting cloth on top and bars on the sides, we place rubber balls 
of such size as will freely play in the space. The motion of the shaker, the rough surface 
of the wire cloth and the cross wires cause the balls to jump and dance in all directions, 
and these in turn jar the bolting cloth, keeping the meshes free and open so that the ope- 
ration of the machine is the same at all times. 

By this arrangement we avoid the annoyances peculiar to brushes, traveling air blasts 
and knockers, while oui* machine is always in order, and each section of sieve carries its 
own cleaning facilities, read.v to work the moment the machine starts up. 

This device is so simple and appeals so strongly to the understanding, that we abstain 
from giving any of the many testimonials at our disposal. 

Those having our Excelsior Middlings Purifier without this attachment, can be fur- 
nished with rubber balls and wire cloth required, at the following prices per single sieve: 



No. 1, 40 cents. 



No. 2, 45 cents. 
Nos. 4 and 5, 90 cents 



No. 3. 7.5 cent.s. 



Huntley, Holcomb & Heine, 

Silver Creek, P*ew York, 



XXIV APPENDIX. 



HoAAT^es, Babcock & Co. 

Sole Propriel.01'6 iiud Mauufacturens of the 

EUREKA SMUTfSEPARATlE MACHINE 

And Dealers in Mill Furnishings of Every Description, 

SILVEE CREEK, N. Y. 



No. 1. Eureka Separator, constructed on the zig- 
zag principal in the arrangement of the screens, combined with 
the lateral shake movement and interchangeable screens. For 
ridding wheat of straws, broken pieces of weeds and oats, it has 
no equal ; is entirely dustless and built of best material and in the 
most durable manner. 

No. 2. Eureka Smut and Separating Machine 

is so well known that it does not require a description here, as 
over twelve thousand have been sold, and it is the best known 
wheat cleaning machine manufactured. 

No. 3. Eureka Brush Finishing Machine. This 

machine has been thoroughly tested, and a large number sold 
during the last six years. The advantages over other brush 
machines are: thorough ventilation, simplicity in adjusting the 
brushes, durability, and superior mechanical construction. 

No 4. Silver Creek Flour Packer. Having all the 

advantages of the Mattison Packer, to- wit: Eeceding platform, 
stationary augur and tube, including a complete arrangement 
for packing in barrels, half-barrels, and half, quarter and eighth 
sacks, and at a price so low that no small mill even can afford to 
do without them. 

No. 5. Represents the trade-mark oi the genuine Dufour 
cloth, the only always reliable cloth in the market, a full stock of 
which we keep constantly on hand, which will always be sold at 
bottom prices. We make up cloth in the best manner, at prices 
so low as to defy competition. 

For illustration, see page 224. 

For further information in relation to any or all the above 
machines, or price lists and samples of cloth, and samples of 
making, address, 

HOWES, BABCOCK & CO., 

Qhautauqua County. jSilyer Creek^ 'S^yv York, 



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